All posts by Maverick John

KNEC LATEST NEWS– The Knec CBA portal (https://cba.knec.ac.ke/) is used to capture early year’s (Grade 1 to 6) learner details and scores. On successful log in to https://cba.knec.ac.ke/, you can Select an Assessment Portal. Another task that you can carry out in the portal is that of transferring a learner.

KNEC User Manual for Transfer of a Learner in the CBA Portal

To transfer a learner to another school, use the simplified procedure below;

Step 1: Log into the Knec CBA portal by visiting the link; https://cba.knec.ac.ke/. After login, Click on Transfer Learner tab as shown in the image below;

Step 2: Enter the Learner’s name or assessment number as shown in the figure below. As you type, the learners matching the name typed will appear.

Step 3: Click on Select if the learner to transfer is found.
NB: Make sure to check the name and current school code before selecting.

Also read; www.knec.ac.ke portals (Kenya National Examinations Council Online Portal)

Step 4: Enter the School Code to transfer to here. Ensure that the code entered
belongs to a school in your sub county.

Step 5: Once the school appears, click on Select to select the destination school;

Step 6: Click on Transfer This Learner to move the learner from the current school to the destination school.

After clicking on transfer this learner, a prompt asking if you want to proceed
appears as shown below.

Step 7: Click OK to complete the transfer. The system will show this message if the transfer is successful.

Universities and Colleges Portal

The Kenya Education Management Institute (KEMI) Student Portal Login

October 5, 2025 Maverick John Leave a comment

Click here to access The Kenya Education Management Institute (KEMI) Student Portal Login…………………

Teachers' Resources

ENGLISH TEACHING NOTES FREE IN PDF

October 5, 2025 Maverick John Leave a comment

ENGLISH NOTES

NOUNS

These are words that name things ,people, ideas, qualities ,state and places.

Examples:

People-John, Jack
Ideas-stone, desk, laptop
Qualities-bravery, kindness, greed, diligence
State-sickness, laziness, poverty, wealth, love.
Places-Nairobi, Mombasa, Kisumu

Nouns can be divided into different categories.

Types of nouns

Proper nouns
Common nouns
Concrete nouns
Abstract nouns
Collective nouns
Countable nouns
Uncountable nouns

Common nouns

These are names of ordinary things. They include;

Boy
Girl
Locker
Desk
Water

Some common nouns have antonyms. They include:

shepherd-shepherdess buck-doe(goat,rabbit)
Bullock-heifer wizard-witch )
Drone-bee heir-heiress
Horse-mare manager-manageress
jack-jennet(donkey) tomcat-queen
Bachelor-spinster jew – jewess
monk-nun ram-ewe(sheep
cock-hen stallion-mare(horse)
Nephew-niece poet-poetess

Proper nouns

These are names given to specific people, places or things. They are always used with capital letters as follows;

Names of people ; Winston, Jacob, Melvin.
Months of the year; January, February, March.
Days of the week; Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday.
Seasons of the year; Winter, Spring, Autumn, Summer.
Names of countries and continents ; America, Kenya, Australia, Europe.
Names of regions, states and districts; Mombasa County, Nyanza , Califonia
Names of cities towns and villages; Naivasha, Nairobi, Kochia.
Geographical areas; The North, The North.

Concrete nouns

These are nouns naming things that can be seen and touched. The refer to:

People-boy, girl, teacher
Animals- cat, elephant, cow
Things-table, phone, cup
Geographical features-mountain, rivers, valleys

Abstract nouns

Abstract nouns are nouns naming things one cannot see or touch.

They refer to:

States; pain sickness, pity, poverty, wealth, success
Quality; honesty, greed, cruelty,
Ideas; education, corruption, love, hatred, justice

Count nouns/countable nouns

These are names of things which can be counted.

They have singular and plural forms.

They can be used with articles and numerals.

A Pen- pens
A Book-books
Paper-papers
Chair-chairs
Flower-flowers

f)Non-count /uncountable nouns

These are nouns of things that cannot be counted.

They cannot be used with articles such as a/an or the.

They can be used with expressions like some, a handful of, a bit of, a lot of, much .

Examples

Substances ;salt, food, dust
Liquids; milk, water, oil, juice
Ideas; music, knowledge, information, education, advice
Concrete objects; bedding, luggage, furniture, hair ,grass
Qualities; happiness, kindness, courage, obedience

Regular and Irregular nouns

Regular nouns

Regular nouns are nouns are nouns that form their plural by adding s or es to their singular forms.

Examples

Desk-desks

Pen pens

Box-boxes

Buffalo-buffaloes

Irregular noun

These are nouns that form their plural by changing their forms or certain letters.

Examples

Nouns that change oo to ee

Tooth-teeth
Goose-geese
Foot-feet

Nouns that omit us and add i

Radius-radii
Cactus-cacti
Stimulus-stimuli
Syllabus-syllabi/syllabuses
Alumnus-alumni

Nouns that omit um and replace it with a

Agendum-agenda
Addendum-addenda
Curriculum-curricula
Stratum-strata
Stimulus-stimuli

Nouns that change I to ee

Basis-bases
Oasis-oases
Thesis-theses
Crisis-crises

Nouns that change on/n to a

Criterion-criteria
Phenomenon-phenomena

Nouns that add ee

Larva-larvae
Formula-formulae

Nouns that change x to -ces

Matrix-matrices
Index-indices

Collective nouns

These are names of groups of people, animals or things.

They take a singular verb since each individual making up the group is seen as part of a single unit.

Examples

A brood of chickens a clan of hyenas
A dole of doves a cohort of zebras
A mews of hawks a bike of bees
A parliament of owls a flight of butterflies
A flight of pigeons a cloud of grasshoppers
A battery or journalists a colony of wasps
A run of poultry a clutter of spiders
A congress baboons a troupe of performers
A leap of leopards a house of senators
A pride of lions a panel of experts
A troop of monkeys a herd of harlots
A gang of buffaloes a gaggle of women
A coalition of cheetahs a clutch of eggs
A flink of cows a bed/bouquet of flowers
A pack of dogs a plague of locusts
A colony of rabbits a scourge of mosquitoes
A herd of donkeys a den of snakes
A herd of elephants an army of frogs
A stable of horses a nest of vipers
a school of whales a cast of actors
a bench of bishops an orchestra of musicians
a crowd of people a band of robbers
a crew of sailors a board of directors
a flock of tourists a fleet of cars
a galaxy of stars a cache of jewels

Compound nouns

These are nouns made up of more than one word.

They may be written as single words, two separate words, that have to be used together to give the right meaning and they may also be hyphenated.

Single words

Kickback Shopkeeper
Necklace Toothpaste
Sunshine Airport
Heartburn Nosebleed
Football Breakthrough
Classmate Takeaway
Workshop Teapot
Dressmaking Cupboard

Two/three separate words

Leather jacket dining hall
Tap water driving license
Bank account cow dung
Ice cream frying pan
Assistant minister ladies’ shoes
Deputy head children’s wear
Coat of arms

Hyphenated words

Mother-in-law
Commander-in-chief
Table-mat
Father-in- law
Sergeant-at-arm
Attorney-general
Passer-by
Door-bell

Plurals of Compound nouns

Plurals of compound nouns are formed in various ways:

Adding a plural marker to the last part of the compound noun

Shopkeepers
Necklaces
Workshops
Teapots
Bank accounts
Leather jackets
Deputy heads

Adding the plural ending after the first part of the compound noun

Coats of arms
Mothers-in-law
Commanders-in-law
Passers-by
Attorney-generals/attorneys-general
Sergeants-at-arm

NOUN PHRASES

A noun phrase is a group of words that functions as as a noun(unit)

It may comprise of a noun, a pronoun or a noun and other words modifying it.

These modifiers may include:

Article; a/an and the
Demonstratives; this, that, these, those
Possessive adjectives; my, his, their, our
Quantifiers; all, some, many, few, a lot, no
Numerals; two, three, four
Adjectives; good, handsome, beautiful

Examples of noun phrases

Noun

Corruption

Poverty

John

Nouns +articles

The cow

An umbrella

A dog

Noun + demonstrative

This cow

That jug

Noun + possessive adjective

My vehicle

His book

Noun +quantifiers

Some people

Many students

Noun + numerals

Two students

Three ladies

Noun + adjective

Handsome boys

Dirty pigs

Article + adjective + noun

The lonely pig

Article + numeral + adjective

The three dirty pigs

Functions of noun phrases

As a subject

A noun phrase is used as a subject if:

-it appears before the main verb

-it refers to the initiator of the action stated by the verb.

As complement

A subject complement is a word/phrase that describes/defines the subject of a sentence. They follow copular/ linking verbs. These verbs include ;am, was, are, were, been, become, appear, seen, sound and feel.

As an object

a)Direct object

A direct object is a word, phrase or clause that follows a transitive verb and answers the question ”who” or “what?”

A direct object receives the action of the of the verb.

b)Indirect object

An indirect object is a word/phrase that answers the question “to whom?” or “for whom” or for what is the action of the verb performed. Indirect object is the beneficiary/receives something or benefits from something.

CLAUSES

A clause is a group of words contain a subject and a verb(predicate)

It can form either a sentence on its own, or be part of a longer sentence.

Types of clauses

i) Independent clause

These are also called main clauses, they are clauses that can stand on their as sentences.

Examples

Susan likes reading.
The guest speaker spoke for only 20 minutes.
We saw our local M.P at baraza.
Literature courses are offered at the university.

ii) Coordinating clause

If two or more independent clauses are joined to make a sentence , each sentence is called a coordinating clause. This clause comprises sentences of equal importance but they work together.

Each coordinating clause is connected to the other using a coordinating conjunction(fanboys)

Examples

John likes to play football but Joseph plays volleyball.

iii) Dependent/subordinate clause

These are clauses that depend on independent clauses to be meaningful.

They do not express a complete thought and cannot stand on their own.

These clauses are used with subordinate conjunctions such as : if, although, before, while, as, until unless, despite ,since etc

Examples

Unless you read newspapers, you cannot be informed.

Although I revised well, I failed terribly.

NOUN CLAUSES

A noun clause is a subordinate clause that does the same work as that of a noun phrase.

It has a subject and a verb and may be used as a subject or an object of a sentence.

Noun clause are introduced by words such as when, that, whoever, how, where, whoever, which, who, how, why and whatever.

Examples

Whoever finishes the race will get the reward.
Whoever ordered the books is not in today.
She told me to give the guests whatever they needed.
He understood what we discussed.
When to vote will be decided on by the commission.
That they failed irritates them.
How you spend the money is up to you.
He said that the teacher had arrived.

Types of noun clauses

That noun clause

That the world is round is known.
I know that you can pass.
That I love football is known.
That we shall die is known.

Wh-noun clauses

What she did was seen.

Functions of noun clauses

Subject of a sentence

Object of a sentence

Complement

NOUN DERIVATIONS

Noun derivation is the process of forming nouns from other lexical categories(words) by adding affixes(prefixes, suffixes, infixes)

Nouns are formed by adding prefixes to verbs ,adjectives or nouns

Prefixes are elements added at the end of words

Examples

-er -ment -less
-ee -ion -ive
-ness -tion -able
-ship -ence -ation
-ism -dom
-ity -ize/ise -or

Nouns derived from verbs

By adding –er

Dance-dancer
Write-writer
Drive-driver
Winner-winner

By adding –ee

Retire-retiree
Escape-escapee
Train-trainee
Pay-payee
Refer-referee
Absent-absentee

Divorce-divorcee

By adding –or

Guarant-guarantor
Act-actor
Stress-stressor
Donate-donator
Educate-educator
instruct-instructor

By adding –ation/-ition

Educate-education
Attend-attention
Repeat-repetition
Admit-admission
Discuss-discussion
Receive-reception

By adding –ment/ent

Require-requirement
Involve-involvement
Acknowledge-acknowledgement
Employ-employment

By adding –ance/ence

Accept-acceptance
Admit-admittance
Allow-allowance
Assure-assurance
Comply-compliance
Defy-defiance
Guide-guidance
Maintain-maintenance
Clear-clearance
Adhere-adherence
Patient-patience
Exist-existence

By adding –al

Survive-survival
Deny-denial
Bury-burial
Dismiss-dismissal
Rehearse-rehearsal

By adding –age

Marry-marriage
Waste-wastage
Break-breakage
Use-usage

By adding –ery

Deliver-delivery
Bribe- bribery

Nouns derived from adjectives

By adding –ness

Kind-kindness
Stubborn-stubbornness
Shy-shyness
Happy-happiness
Keen-keenness
Open-openness

By adding –ism

Tribe-tribalism
Material-materialism
Critic-criticism
Race-racism
Skeptic- skepticism

By adding –ery

Brave-bravery

By adding –ity

Equal-equality
Similar-similarity
Sane-sanity
Curious-curiosity
Brief-brevity

By adding

Nouns derived from nouns

By adding-ship

Friend-friendship

King-kingship
Relation-relationship
Leader-leadership
Friend-friendship
Author-authorship
Owner-ownership

Censor-censorship

By adding –dom

King-kingdom
Martyr-martyrdom
Chief-chiefdom

By adding –ery

Slave-slavery

PRONOUNS

Pronouns are words used in place of pronouns.

Person and number

Personal pronouns are divided into three classes:

First person pronouns

These are pronouns that refer to the person who is speaking/writing

They include:

singular	plural
I	we
me	us

Second person pronouns

These are pronouns that refer to person who is listening or reading.

They include:

singular	plural
you	you

Third person pronouns

These pronouns that refer to the person being spoken about.

They include:

singular	plural
He/him	They/them
She/her	They/them
it	They/them

Pronouns that refer to the doer of the action are called subject pronouns. They include:

I, we, you, he, she, it and they.

Pronouns that refer to the recipient/receiver of the action are called object pronouns. They include:

Me, us, you, him, her, it and them.

Indefinite Pronouns

Indefinite pronouns are pronouns which do not refer to definite number of things or people. They refer to things in general without identifying them.

Examples

everybody several
Everyone one
Nobody either
Anyone all
Nobody many
Somebody few
None both
Someone some

Indefinite pronouns can be categorized into:

Singular indefinite pronouns

Plural indefinite pronouns

i)singular indefinite pronouns

These are indefinite pronouns that refer to one person/thing.

Examples

Nobody everybody
Someone none
Anyone someone
Somebody another
Another each
Everybody neither

Singular indefinite pronouns take singular verbs such as has, is, and says.

ii) Plural indefinite pronouns

These are indefinite pronouns that refer to more than one person or thing.

Examples

All
Many
Few
Both
Several

These take plural verbs such as are, were, have

Indefinite pronouns can be made to be gender sensitive by using his/her.

Pronouns and Case

A case is different positions that pronouns take in a sentence. They can take the subject or the object position.

i) Subjective Case

A pronoun is said to be in subjective case when it appears before/precedes a verb.

Examples

He will always remember this.
She teaches Geography.
They are in college.

Pronouns used in subjective case include: I, we, you, he, she, it and they.

Person	singular	plural
1^st	I	we
2^nd	you	you
3rd	He/she
	it

NB: Pronouns in subjective case are also used in comparison after than.

She is taller than he.

ii)objective case

A pronoun is said to be in the objective case when it appears/comes after the verb or preposition.

Examples

John loves her
I am waiting for him.

Pronouns used in objective case are:

Person	singular	plural
1^st person	me	Us
2^nd person	You	you
3^rd person	Him
	Her	They
	it

NB: Relative pronouns also take either subjective case.

Who is used in the subjective case; it refers to the doer of the action.

Example

This man who gave me a gift.

Whom is used as an object; it refers to the recipient of the action.

It can also be used with prepositions.

Example

The man whom I wanted to see is in Narok.
The woman to whom I wished to speak was away.
I saw the people for whom you work.

The student whom you sent home has returned.

Knec Schools Portal

Rigoma Girls Secondary School’s Verified KCSE 2023-2024 Results and Grades Distribution

October 5, 2025 Maverick John Leave a comment

school registered an impressive performance in the KCSE 2023 exams by emerging position 13 in Nyamira County.

The school recorded a very good mean score of 7.561 points, to rank among the KCSE 2023 top performing schools in the country.

The school’s mean score moved from 5.8 in the previous year, to 7.561 in this year’s KCSE exam.

The school’s candidature in the KCSE 2023 exam was 82 students.

A total of 71 Students scored above C+ thus securing direct entry to university since this is the minimum university entry grade as stipulated by colleges and universities placement body (Kuccps).

school’s KCSE 2023/2024 Results Analysis; Grades Distribution.

Unfortunately, no student scored the most coveted grade of A plain (A) whereas zero students scored A minus (A-). Majority of the students scored grade C+ (plus) and above.

Ps	County	Sub County	School Name	Boys	Girls	Total	A	A-	B+	B	B-	C+	C	C-	D+	D	D-	E	X	Y	U	P	W	TOT	2019,	2020,	2021,	2022,	2023,	DEV	Above C+	University %
13	NYAMIRA	MASABA NORTH	RIGOMA GIRLS	0	82	82	0	0	1	14	29	27	8	3	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	82				5.8	7.561	1.749	71	86.58536585

County Secondary Schools in Nyamira County; School KNEC Code, Type, Cluster, and Category

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TSC News Portal

TSC Minet Latest List of all Service Providers, Hospitals in Kisii County: Their Contacts, Location and Services Offered

October 5, 2025 Maverick John Leave a comment

TSC Minet Latest List of all Service Providers, Hospitals in Kisii County: Their Contacts, Location and Services Offered

Region	County	Sub-county	Town	Name of Service Provider	Access	Services
NYANZA	KISII
NYANZA	KISII	KISII	KISII TOWN opp STAGE	BLISS GVS HEALTHCARE LTD _STAGE	DIRECT	OP
NYANZA	KISII	KISII	KISII TOWN opp CO-OP BANK	BLISS GVS HEALTHCARE LTD KISII	DIRECT	OP/DENTAL/OPTICAL
NYANZA	KISII	NYARIBARI CHACHE	KISII TOWN	CHRISTMARIANNE MISSION HOSPITAL	DIRECT	IP/OP/MAT
NYANZA	KISII	KENYENYA	KENYENYA	KENYENYA MEDICAL AND DIAGNOSTIC CENTRE	DIRECT	OP
NYANZA	KISII	KISII CENTRAL	SANSORA BUILDING	KISII FAMILY MEDICAL CENTRE	DIRECT	OP
NYANZA	KISII	KISII CENTRAL	KISII TOWN	RAM HOSPITAL LTD	DIRECT	IP/OP/MAT
NYANZA	KISII	SAMETA	SAMETA	LENMEK HOSPITAL LTD	DIRECT	IP/OP/DENTAL/OPTICAL/MAT -> Direct
NYANZA	KISII	KITUTU CHACHE	GESONSO	NYANGENA HOSPITAL	DIRECT	IP/OP/MAT
NYANZA	KISII	NYARIBARI CHACHE	KISII TOWN	KISII PHYSIOTHERAPY CLINIC	REFERRAL	SPECIALISTS(OP)
NYANZA	KISII	BOMACHOGE	OGEMBO	NEOCARE SPECIALIST HOSPITAL	DIRECT	IP/OP/MAT
NYANZA	KISII	KISII CENTRAL	KISII TOWN	OASIS SPECIALIST HOSPITAL LIMITED	REFERRAL	IP/OP SPECIALIST/MAT
NYANZA	KISII	KEROKA	KEROKA	ST CATHERINES ICHUNI DISPENSARY	DIRECT	IP/OP/MAT
NYANZA	KISII	GUCHA SOUTH	TABAKA	TABAKA MISSION HOSPITAL	DIRECT	IP/OP/MAT

Knec Schools Portal

Marani Girls PAG High School’s Verified KCSE 2023-2024 Results and Grades Distribution

October 5, 2025 Maverick John Leave a comment

Marani Girls PAG High school registered an impressive performance in the KCSE 2023 exams by emerging position 19 in Nyamira County.

The school recorded a very good mean score of 7.235 points, to rank among the KCSE 2023 top performing schools in the country.

The school’s mean score moved from 5.273 in the previous year, to 7.235 in this year’s KCSE exam.

The school’s candidature in the KCSE 2023 exam was 17 students.

A total of 12 Students scored above C+ thus securing direct entry to university since this is the minimum university entry grade as stipulated by colleges and universities placement body (Kuccps).

Marani Girls PAG High school’s KCSE 2023/2024 Results Analysis; Grades Distribution.

Unfortunately, no student scored the most coveted grade of A plain (A) whereas zero students scored A minus (A-). Majority of the students scored grade C+ (plus) and above.

Ps	County	Sub County	School Name	Boys	Girls	Total	A	A-	B+	B	B-	C+	C	C-	D+	D	D-	E	X	Y	U	P	W	TOT	2019,	2020,	2021,	2022,	2023,	DEV	Above C+	University %
19	NYAMIRA	NYAMIRA SOUTH	MARANI P.A.G GIRLS	0	17	17	0	0	1	1	5	5	4	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	17	3.780	2.950	2.895	5.273	7.235	1.963	12	70.58823529

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Teachers' Resources

ENGLISH FORM ONE LESSON PLAN IN PDF

October 5, 2025 Maverick John Leave a comment

FORM ONE LESSON PLAN TERM 1

SCHOOL: __________________________________________________

TCHR’S NAME: ___________________________CLASS: FORM 1_______________

DATE: _______________________DAY:__________________WEEK:_____ LESSON: _____________

SKILL/TOPIC: LISTENING AND SPEAKING/ Oral Literature

SUB-TOPIC: Trickster Narratives

OBJECTIVE: By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

(a) Identify the features of a trickster narrative.

(b) Discuss the functions of a trickster narrative

T/L RESOURCES: Sample of a trickster narrative

REFERENCES: Secondary English Bk 1 Pg 1-3

Oral Literature for Schools
Teacher’s Book

PART/TIME	TEACHER’S ACTIVITES	LEARNER’S ACTIVITIES
INTRODUCTION 4 minutes	(a) Reviews the previous lesson. Asks learners to define a myth a trickster narrative. (b) Tells the learners that they will be learning about trickster narratives.	(a) Defines a legend. (b) Listens and takes notes.
DEVELOPMENT 32 minutes	1. Narrates a trickster narrative to the learners. 2. Explains the features and functions of a trickster narrative. 3. Groups the learners. Gives the learners a sample trickster narrative h. Asks learners to identify the features of a trickster narrative in it. 4. Asks learners present their projects.	1. States how they grabbed and kept the attention. 2. Listens and takes notes. Seeks clarification. 3. Discusses. 4. Presents their projects.
CONCLUSION 4 minutes	(a) Asks them to narrate a trickster narrative of their own. (b) Gives them an exercise.	(a) Explains the ways. (b) Writes the exercise in their exercise books.

CHALKBOARD LAYOUT

Date ENGLISH FORM 1

LISTENING AND SPEAKING

Oral Literature

Trickster Narratives

COMMENTS:

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

FORM ONE LESSON PLAN TERM 1,

SCHOOL: __________________________________________________

TCHR’S NAME: ___________________________CLASS: FORM 1_______________

DATE: _______________________DAY:__________________WEEK:_____ LESSON: _____________

SKILL/TOPIC: STUDY SKILLS

SUB-TOPIC: Silent Reading 1

OBJECTIVE: By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

Develop techniques of silent reading.
Identify the main points and the supporting materials in a text.

T/L RESOURCES: Posters, chalkboard demonstration of sitting postures

REFERENCES: Secondary English Bk 1 Pg 3-4

Head Start English Bk 1
New Integrated English Bk 1
Teacher’s Book

PART/TIME	TEACHER’S ACTIVITES	LEARNER’S ACTIVITIES
INTRODUCTION 5 minutes	(a) Asks students to how they do their studies. (b) Tells them that they would be learning how to develop good silent reading techniques.	(a) Gives the features of summary. (b) Listens and takes notes.
DEVELOPMENT 30 minutes	1. Outlines the best silent reading study techniques for maximum concentration. 2. Issues a handout with a passage to be read. 3. Tells the learners to read it using the techniques explained and identify the main points as well as the supporting material. 4. Summarizes the points to consider when preparing for silent reading	1. Listens and takes notes. 2. Reads the passage. 3. Writes down the answers. 4. Writes a summary.
CONCLUSION 5 minutes	(a) Asks some students to read aloud their answers to the question given earlier. (b) Writes an exercise on the chalkboard.	(a) Corrects the others. (b) Writes the exercise.

CHALKBOARD LAYOUT

Date ENGLISH FORM 1

STUDY SKILLS

Silent Reading

COMMENTS:

FORM ONE LESSON PLAN TERM 1,

SCHOOL: __________________________________________________

TCHR’S NAME: ___________________________CLASS: FORM 1_______________

DATE: _______________________DAY:__________________WEEK:_____ LESSON: _____________

SKILL/TOPIC: READING/COMPREHENSION

SUB-TOPIC: Karani and Kemunto

OBJECTIVE: By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

Read the passage and respond to questions after it.
Use new words in sentences of their own.

T/L RESOURCES: Picture on students’ book/ Dictionaries for reference

REFERENCES: Secondary English Bk 1 Pg 5

Head Start English Bk 1, New Integrated English Bk 1, Teacher’s Guides

PART/TIME	TEACHER’S ACTIVITES	LEARNER’S ACTIVITIES
INTRODUCTION 4 minutes	(a) Talks about the issue raised in the passage without letting them know they are about to read a passage. (b) Asks students question concerning the issue. (c) Tells the students the passage they are about to read and asks them to open their course books.	(a) Listens and seeks clarification. (b) Answers the questions asked. (c) Opens their books.
DEVELOPMENT 33 minutes	1. Asks students to read the paragraphs in turns. 2. Asks students to retell the passage in their own words. 3. Asks students some questions on the passage. 4. Identifies some new words and asks students to give their meanings and use in each in their own words.	1. Reads the paragraphs. 2. Retells the passage. 3. Answers the questions. 4. Gives the meanings of the words and use them in sentences of their own.
CONCLUSION 3 minutes	1. Asks students to discuss the lessons they learn from the passage. 2. Gives an exercise.	1. Discusses the lessons they learn from the passage. 2. Writes the exercise.

CHALKBOARD LAYOUT

Date ENGLISH FORM 1

READING

COMPREHENSION

KARANI AND KEMUNTO

COMMENTS:

FORM ONE LESSON PLAN TERM 1,

SCHOOL: __________________________________________________

TCHR’S NAME: ___________________________CLASS: FORM 1_______________

DATE: _______________________DAY:__________________WEEK:_____ LESSON: _____________

SKILL/TOPIC: GRAMMAR

SUB-TOPIC: Common and Proper Nouns

OBJECTIVE: By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

(a) Define common and proper nouns.

(b) Use common and proper nouns in sentences of their own.

T/L RESOURCES: Chart showing common and proper nouns

REFERENCES: Secondary English Bk 1 Pg 6-7

Head Start English Bk 1, New Integrated English Bk 1, Teacher’s Guides

PART/TIME	TEACHER’S ACTIVITES	LEARNER’S ACTIVITIES
INTRODUCTION 5 minutes	(a) Writes sentences with common and proper nouns. (b) Asks learners to identify the common and proper nouns. (c) Tells them that they will be learning common and proper nouns.	(a) Reads the sentence. (b) Identifies the common and proper nouns. (c) Listens and takes notes.
DEVELOPMENT 30 minutes	1. Writes more sentences. 2. Explains more examples of common and proper nouns. 3. Displays the chart with the common and proper nouns. 4. Groups the learners and issues the handout with a paragraph. 5. Asks learners identify the common and proper nouns.	1. Identifies common and proper nouns. 2. Listens and seeks clarification. 3. Identifies their components. 4. Identifies common and proper nouns. 5. Uses the words in sentences.
CONCLUSION 5 minutes	(a) Asks students to use common and proper nouns learnt in sentences. (b) Gives an exercise.	(a) Uses them in sentences. (b) Writes the exercise.

CHALKBOARD LAYOUT

Date ENGLISH FORM 1

GRAMMAR

COMON AND PROPER NOUNS

COMMENTS:

FORM ONE LESSON PLAN TERM 1, 2019

SCHOOL: __________________________________________________

TCHR’S NAME: ___________________________CLASS: FORM 1_______________

DATE: _______________________DAY:__________________WEEK:_____ LESSON: _____________

SKILL/TOPIC: WRITING

SUB-TOPIC: Handwriting

OBJECTIVE: By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

a) Write neatly and legibly.
b) Appreciate the importance of writing neatly.

T/L RESOURCES: Sample of good handwriting

REFERENCES: Secondary English Bk 1 Pg 7-9

Head Start English Bk 1, New Integrated English Bk 1, Teacher’s Guides

PART/TIME	TEACHER’S ACTIVITES	LEARNER’S ACTIVITIES
INTRODUCTION 4 minutes	(a) Reviews the previous lesson. (b) Tells the learners they are going to learn how to write using a good handwriting.	Listens and writes down notes.
DEVELOPMENT 32minutes	1. Explains the importance of good handwriting. 2. Asks students to write a passage using good handwriting. 3. Asks individual students to read the passages of their neighbours.	1. Listens and seeks clarification. Takes notes. 2. Writes down the passage. 3. Reads the passage
CONCLUSION 4 minutes	(a) Gives an exercise.	(a) Writes the exercise.

CHALKBOARD LAYOUT

Date ENGLISH FORM 1

WRITING

Handwriting

COMMENTS:

FORM ONE LESSON PLAN TERM 1, 2019

SCHOOL: __________________________________________________

TCHR’S NAME: ___________________________CLASS: FORM 1_______________

DATE: _______________________DAY:__________________WEEK:_____ LESSON: _____________

SKILL/TOPIC: LISTENING AND SPEAKING

SUB-TOPIC: Pronunciation of /l/ and /r/ sounds

OBJECTIVE: By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

Pronounce the sounds /l/ and /r/ with distinction
Write words in which the sounds /l/ and /r/ appear

T/L RESOURCES: Chart with minimal pairs of the sounds /l/ and /r/

REFERENCES: Secondary English Bk 1 10-11

Head Start English Bk 1, New Integrated English Bk 1, Teacher’s Guides

PART/TIME	TEACHER’S ACTIVITES	LEARNER’S ACTIVITIES
INTRODUCTION 4 minutes	1. Write two words, one bearing each sound. 2. Demonstrate how the two sounds are produced.	1. Reads the words aloud. 2. Listens and asks for clarification.
DEVELOPMENT 30 minutes	1. Displays the chart and asks the learners to read aloud. 2. Explain that the words are minimal pairs. 3. Ask learners to give more examples of minimal pairs of /l/ and /r/. 4. Divide the class in pairs. 5.Shows the students the flashcards and asks them to write the word that differs in pronunciation with only one sound considering the sounds under study	1. Reads the minimal pairs aloud. 2. Takes notes and asks for clarification. 3. Gives examples. 4. Sits in pairs. 5.Writes the words after discussing
CONCLUSION 5minutes	(a) Asks the students to reread the minimal pairs. (b) Writes an exercise on the chalkboard.	(a) Rereads the minimal pairs. (b) Writes the exercise.

CHALKBOARD LAYOUT

Date ENGLISH FORM 2

STUDY SKILLS

Pronunciation of /l/ and /r/ sounds

COMMENTS:

FORM ONE LESSON PLAN TERM 1, 2019

SCHOOL: __________________________________________________

TCHR’S NAME: ___________________________CLASS: FORM 1_______________

DATE: _______________________DAY:__________________WEEK:_____ LESSON: _____________

SKILL/TOPIC: STUDY SKILLS

SUB-TOPIC: Silent Reading 2

OBJECTIVE: By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

Develop techniques of silent reading.
Identify the main points and the supporting materials in a text.

T/L RESOURCES: Posters, chalkboard demonstration of sitting postures

REFERENCES: Secondary English Bk 1 Pg 11-12

Head Start English Bk 1
New Integrated English Bk 1
Teacher’s Book

PART/TIME	TEACHER’S ACTIVITES	LEARNER’S ACTIVITIES
INTRODUCTION 5 minutes	(a) Asks students to how they do their studies. (b) Tells them that they would be learning how to develop good silent reading techniques.	(a) Gives the features of summary. (b) Listens and takes notes.
DEVELOPMENT 30 minutes	1. Outlines the best silent reading study techniques for maximum concentration. 2. Issues a handout with a passage to be read. 3. Tells the learners to read it using the techniques explained and identify the main points as well as the supporting material. 4.Summarizes the points to consider when preparing for silent reading	1. Listens and takes notes. 2. Reads the passage. 3. Writes down the answers. 4. Writes a summary.
CONCLUSION 5 minutes	(a) Asks some students to read aloud their answers to the question given earlier. (b) Writes an exercise on the chalkboard.	(a) Corrects the others. (b) Writes the exercise.

CHALKBOARD LAYOUT

Date ENGLISH FORM 1

STUDY SKILLS

Silent Reading

COMMENTS:

FORM ONE LESSON PLAN TERM 1, 2019

SCHOOL: __________________________________________________

TCHR’S NAME: ___________________________CLASS: FORM 1_______________

DATE: _______________________DAY:__________________WEEK:_____ LESSON: _____________

SKILL/TOPIC: READING/COMPREHENSION

SUB-TOPIC: The Sick Man

OBJECTIVE: By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

Read the passage and respond to questions after it.
Use new words in sentences of their own.

T/L RESOURCES: Picture on students’ book/ Dictionaries for reference

REFERENCES: Secondary English Bk 1 Pg 12

Head Start English Bk 1, New Integrated English Bk 1, Teacher’s Guides

PART/TIME	TEACHER’S ACTIVITES	LEARNER’S ACTIVITIES
INTRODUCTION 4 minutes	(a) Talks about the issue raised in the passage without letting them know they are about to read a passage. (b) Asks students question concerning the issue. (c) Tells the students the passage they are about to read and asks them to open their course books.	(a) Listens and seeks clarification. (b) Answers the questions asked. (c) Opens their books.
DEVELOPMENT 33 minutes	1. Asks students to read the paragraphs in turns. 2. Asks students to retell the passage in their own words. 3. Asks students some questions on the passage. 4. Identifies some new words and asks students to give their meanings and use in each in their own words.	1. Reads the paragraphs. 2. Retells the passage. 3. Answers the questions. 4. Gives the meanings of the words and use them in sentences of their own.
CONCLUSION 3 minutes	1. Asks students to discuss the lessons they learn from the passage. 2. Gives an exercise.	1. Discusses the lessons they learn from the passage. 2. Writes the exercise.

CHALKBOARD LAYOUT

Date ENGLISH FORM 1

READING

COMPREHENSION

THE SICK MAN

COMMENTS:

FORM ONE LESSON PLAN TERM 1, 2019

SCHOOL: __________________________________________________

TCHR’S NAME: ___________________________CLASS: FORM 1_______________

DATE: _______________________DAY:__________________WEEK:_____ LESSON: _____________

SKILL/TOPIC: GRAMMAR

SUB-TOPIC: Concrete and abstract Nouns

OBJECTIVE: By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

(a) Define concrete and abstract nouns.

(b) Use concrete and abstract nouns in sentences of their own.

T/L RESOURCES: Chart showing concrete and abstract nouns

REFERENCES: Secondary English Bk 1 Pg 14-15

Head Start English Bk 1, New Integrated English Bk 1, Teacher’s Guides

PART/TIME	TEACHER’S ACTIVITES	LEARNER’S ACTIVITIES
INTRODUCTION 5 minutes	(a) Writes sentences with concrete and abstract nouns. (b) Asks learners to identify the concrete and abstract nouns. (c) Tells them that they will be learning concrete and abstract nouns.	(a) Reads the sentence. (b) Identifies the concrete and abstract nouns. (c) Listens and takes notes.
DEVELOPMENT 30 minutes	1. Writes more sentences. 2. Explains more examples of concrete and abstract nouns. 3. Displays the chart with the concrete and abstract nouns. 4. Groups the learners and issues the handout with a paragraph. 5. Asks learners identify the concrete and abstract nouns.	1. Identifies concrete and abstract nouns. 2. Listens and seeks clarification. 3. Identifies their components. 4. Identifies concrete and abstract nouns. 5. Uses the words in sentences.
CONCLUSION 5minutes	(a) Asks students to use concrete and abstract nouns learnt in sentences. (b) Gives an exercise.	(a) Uses them in sentences. (b) Writes the exercise.

CHALKBOARD LAYOUT

Date ENGLISH FORM 1

GRAMMAR

Concrete and Abstract Nouns

COMMENTS:

FORM ONE LESSON PLAN TERM 1, 2019

SCHOOL: __________________________________________________

TCHR’S NAME: ___________________________CLASS: FORM 1_______________

DATE: _______________________DAY:__________________WEEK:_____ LESSON: _____________

SKILL/TOPIC: WORD STUDY

SUB-TOPIC: Commonly Misspelt words

OBJECTIVE: By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

Write neatly and legibly.
Spell given words correctly.

T/L RESOURCES: Posters, chalkboard demonstration of sitting postures

REFERENCES: Secondary English Bk 1 Pg 16

Head Start English Bk 1, New Integrated English Bk 1, Teacher’s Guides

PART/TIME	TEACHER’S ACTIVITES	LEARNER’S ACTIVITIES
INTRODUCTION 5 minutes	(a) Asks students to mention some words that they commonly misspell. (b) Tells them the reasons behind misspelling of words.	(a) Gives the features of summary. (b) Listens and takes notes.
DEVELOPMENT 30 minutes	1. Read out a list of commonly misspelt words. 2. Tells learners to write them down in their exercise books. 3. Asks the learners to spell each word as they mark for one another. 4.Summarizes the points to consider when spelling words	1. Listens. 2. Writes down the answers. 3. Mark for one another. 4.Listens and takes down notes
CONCLUSION 5 minutes	1. Asks some students to give more commonly misspelt words. 2. Gives an exercise in the students’ textbook.	1. Gives more commonly misspelt words. 2. Writes the exercise.

CHALKBOARD LAYOUT

Date ENGLISH FORM 3

WORD STUDY

Commonly Misspelt Words

COMMENTS:

FORM ONE LESSON PLAN TERM 1, 2019

SCHOOL: __________________________________________________

TCHR’S NAME: ___________________________CLASS: FORM 1_______________

DATE: _______________________DAY:__________________WEEK:_____ LESSON: _____________

SKILL/TOPIC: LISTENING AND SPEAKING

SUB-TOPIC: Pronunciation of /i/ and /I/ sounds

OBJECTIVE: By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

Pronounce the sounds /i/ and /I/ with distinction
Write words in which the sounds /i/ and /I/ appear

T/L RESOURCES: Chart with minimal pairs of the sounds /i/ and /I/

REFERENCES: Secondary English Bk 1 17-19

Head Start English Bk 1, New Integrated English Bk 1, Teacher’s Guides

PART/TIME	TEACHER’S ACTIVITES	LEARNER’S ACTIVITIES
INTRODUCTION 4 minutes	1. Write two words, one bearing each sound. 2. Demonstrate how the two sounds are produced.	1. Reads the words aloud. 2. Listens and asks for clarification.
DEVELOPMENT 31 minutes	1. Displays the chart and asks the learners to read aloud. 2. Explain that the words are minimal pairs. 3. Ask learners to give more examples of minimal pairs of /i/ and /I/. 4. Divide the class in pairs. 5.Shows the students the flashcards and asks them to write the word that differs in pronunciation with only one sound considering the sounds under study	1. Reads the minimal pairs aloud. 2. Takes notes and asks for clarification. 3. Gives examples. 4. Sits in pairs. 5.Writes the words after discussing
CONCLUSION 5minutes	(a) Asks the students to reread the minimal pairs. (b) Writes an exercise on the chalkboard.	(a) Rereads the minimal pairs. (b) Writes the exercise.

CHALKBOARD LAYOUT

Date ENGLISH FORM 1

STUDY SKILLS

Pronunciation of /i/ and /I/ sounds

COMMENTS:

FORM ONE LESSON PLAN TERM 1, 2019

SCHOOL: __________________________________________________

TCHR’S NAME: ___________________________CLASS: FORM 1_______________

DATE: _______________________DAY:__________________WEEK:_____ LESSON: _____________

SKILL/TOPIC: STUDY SKILLS

SUB-TOPIC: Reading Aloud 1

OBJECTIVE: By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

(a) Appreciate the need of developing good oral reading skills.

(b) Explain the importance of understanding what they read aloud.

T/L RESOURCES: Sample instructions

REFERENCES: Secondary English Bk 1 Pg 19-20

Head Start English Bk1
New Integrated English Bk 1
Teacher’s Book

PART/TIME	TEACHER’S ACTIVITES	LEARNER’S ACTIVITIES
INTRODUCTION 4 minutes	1. Reviews the previous lesson. Asks the learners to prepare to read a text aloud. 2. Tells the learners that they will be learning how to read a given text aloud.	1. Prepares to give and receive instructions. 2. Listens and takes notes.
DEVELOPMENT 32minutes	1. Asks learners how to read a given text aloud. 2. Explains how one should read a given text aloud. 3. Groups the learners. Gives learners a question. Asks learners to read a given text aloud.	1. States how to give and receive instructions. 2. Listens and takes notes. Seeks clarification. 3. Reads.
CONCLUSION 4 minutes	(a) Asks them to explain the ways of reading a given text aloud. (b) Writes the exercise on the chalkboard.	(a) Explains the ways. (b) Writes the exercise in their exercise books.

CHALKBOARD LAYOUT

Date ENGLISH FORM 1

STUDY SKILLS

Reading Aloud 1

COMMENTS:

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

FORM ONE LESSON PLAN TERM 1, 2019

SCHOOL: __________________________________________________

TCHR’S NAME: ___________________________CLASS: FORM 1_______________

DATE: _______________________DAY:__________________WEEK:_____ LESSON: _____________

SKILL/TOPIC: READING/COMPREHENSION

SUB-TOPIC: Mlafi and Ndele

OBJECTIVE: By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

Read the passage and respond to questions after it.
Use new words in sentences of their own.

T/L RESOURCES: Picture on students’ book/ Dictionaries for reference

REFERENCES: Secondary English Bk 1 Pg 21-23

Head Start English Bk 1, New Integrated English Bk 1, Teacher’s Guides

PART/TIME	TEACHER’S ACTIVITES	LEARNER’S ACTIVITIES
INTRODUCTION 5 minutes	(a) Talks about the issue raised in the passage without letting them know they are about to read a passage. (b) Asks students question concerning the issue. (c) Tells the students the passage they are about to read and asks them to open their course books.	(a) Listens and seeks clarification. (b) Answers the questions asked. (c) Opens their books.
DEVELOPMENT 32 minutes	1. Asks students to read the paragraphs in turns. 2. Asks students to retell the passage in their own words. 3. Asks students some questions on the passage. 4. Identifies some new words and asks students to give their meanings and use in each in their own words.	1. Reads the paragraphs. 2. Retells the passage. 3. Answers the questions. 4. Gives the meanings of the words and use them in sentences of their own.
CONCLUSION 3 minutes	1. Asks students to discuss the lessons they learn from the passage. 2. Gives an exercise.	1. Discusses the lessons they learn from the passage. 2. Writes the exercise.

CHALKBOARD LAYOUT

Date ENGLISH FORM 1

READING

COMPREHENSION

MLAFI AND NDELE

COMMENTS:

FORM ONE LESSON PLAN TERM 1, 2019

SCHOOL: __________________________________________________

TCHR’S NAME: ___________________________CLASS: FORM 1_______________

DATE: _______________________DAY:__________________WEEK:_____ LESSON: _____________

SKILL/TOPIC: GRAMMAR

SUB-TOPIC: Count and Non-count Nouns

OBJECTIVE: By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

(a) Define count and non-count nouns.

(b) Use count and non-count nouns in sentences of their own.

T/L RESOURCES: Chart showing collective nouns

REFERENCES: Secondary English Bk 1 Pg 23-25

Head Start English Bk 1, New Integrated English Bk 1, Teacher’s Guides

PART/TIME	TEACHER’S ACTIVITES	LEARNER’S ACTIVITIES
INTRODUCTION 6 minutes	1. Writes sentences with count and non-count nouns. 2. Asks learners to identify the count and non-count nouns. 3. Tells them that they will be learning count and non-count nouns.	1. Reads the sentence. 2. Identifies the count and non-count nouns. 3. Listens and takes notes.
DEVELOPMENT 30 minutes	1. Writes more sentences. 2. Explains more examples of count and non-count nouns. 3. Displays the chart with the count and non-count nouns. 4. Groups the learners and issues the handout with a paragraph. 5. Asks learners identify the count and non-count nouns.	1. Identifies count and non-count nouns. 2. Listens and seeks clarification. 3. Identifies their components. 4. Identifies count and non-count nouns. 5. Uses the words in sentences.
CONCLUSION 4 minutes	(a) Asks students to use count and non-count nouns learnt in sentences. (b) Gives an exercise.	(a) Uses them in sentences. (b) Writes the exercise.

CHALKBOARD LAYOUT

Date ENGLISH FORM 1

GRAMMAR

Collective Nouns

COMMENTS:

FORM ONE LESSON PLAN TERM 1, 2019

SCHOOL: __________________________________________________

TCHR’S NAME: ___________________________CLASS: FORM 1_______________

DATE: _______________________DAY:__________________WEEK:_____ LESSON: _____________

SKILL/TOPIC: WRITING

SUB-TOPIC: Narratives

OBJECTIVE: By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

(a) Write neatly and legibly

(b) State the steps in writing a narrative.

T/L RESOURCES: Sample of a narrative

REFERENCES:

Head Start English Bk 1 Pg 25-26
Teachers Book page 98

PART/TIME	TEACHER’S ACTIVITES	LEARNER’S ACTIVITIES
INTRODUCTION 5 minutes	1. Asks students whether they have ever written a narrative. 2. Explains what a narrative composition is. 3.Tells them that they are about to learn how to write a narrative composition	1. Says whether or not they have written a narrative. 2. Listens and seeks clarification. 3. Listens and takes notes.
DEVELOPMENT 30 minutes	1. Issues the sample of a narrative composition. 2. Asks students to list the elements of a narrative composition. 3. Groups the learners. Asks them to write a narrative composition on the topic given. 4. Asks learners to read aloud some of the narrative composition.	1. Reads the narrative imaginative composition letter. 2. Lists the elements. 3. Write the narrative. 4. Reads aloud the letter.
5 CONCLUSION	1. Asks students to outline the features of a narrative. 2. Gives an exercise.	1. Outlines the features. 2. Writes the exercise.

CHALKBOARD LAYOUT

Date ENGLISH FORM 3

WRITING

Narratives

COMMENTS:

FORM ONE LESSON PLAN TERM 1, 2019

SCHOOL: __________________________________________________

TCHR’S NAME: ___________________________CLASS: FORM 1_______________

DATE: _______________________DAY:__________________WEEK:_____ LESSON: _____________

SKILL/TOPIC: LISTENING AND SPEAKING

SUB-TOPIC: Pronunciation of /u/ and /u:/ sounds

OBJECTIVE: By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

Pronounce the sounds /u/ and / u:/ with distinction
Write words in which the sounds /u/ and /u:/ appear

T/L RESOURCES: Chart with minimal pairs of the sounds /u/ and /u:/

REFERENCES: Secondary English Bk 1 17-19

Head Start English Bk 1, New Integrated English Bk 1, Teacher’s Guides

PART/TIME	TEACHER’S ACTIVITES	LEARNER’S ACTIVITIES
INTRODUCTION 4 minutes	1. Write two words, one bearing each sound. 2. Demonstrate how the two sounds are produced.	1. Reads the words aloud. 2. Listens and asks for clarification.
DEVELOPMENT 31 minutes	1. Displays the chart and asks the learners to read aloud. 2. Explain that the words are minimal pairs. 3. Ask learners to give more examples of minimal pairs of /u/ and /u:/. 4. Divide the class in pairs. 5.Shows the students the flashcards and asks them to write the word that differs in pronunciation with only one sound considering the sounds under study	1. Reads the minimal pairs aloud. 2. Takes notes and asks for clarification. 3. Gives examples. 4. Sits in pairs. 5.Writes the words after discussing
CONCLUSION 5minutes	(c) Asks the students to reread the minimal pairs. (d) Writes an exercise on the chalkboard.	(c) Rereads the minimal pairs. (d) Writes the exercise.

CHALKBOARD LAYOUT

Date ENGLISH FORM 1

STUDY SKILLS

Pronunciation of /u/ and /u:/ sounds

COMMENTS:

FORM ONE LESSON PLAN TERM 1, 2019

SCHOOL: __________________________________________________

TCHR’S NAME: ___________________________CLASS: FORM 1_______________

DATE: _______________________DAY:__________________WEEK:_____ LESSON: _____________

SKILL/TOPIC: STUDY SKILLS

SUB-TOPIC: Reading Aloud 2

OBJECTIVE: By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

(a) Appreciate the need of developing good oral reading skills.

(b) Explain the importance of understanding what they read aloud.

T/L RESOURCES: Sample instructions

REFERENCES: Secondary English Bk 1 Pg 19-20

Head Start English Bk1
New Integrated English Bk 1
Teacher’s Book

PART/TIME	TEACHER’S ACTIVITES	LEARNER’S ACTIVITIES
INTRODUCTION 5 minutes	1. Reviews the previous lesson. Asks the learners to prepare to read a text aloud. 2. Tells the learners that they will be learning how to read a given text aloud.	1. Prepares to give and receive instructions. 2. Listens and takes notes.
DEVELOPMENT 32minutes	1. Asks learners how to read a given text aloud. 2. Explains how one should read a given text aloud. 3. Groups the learners. Gives learners a question. Asks learners to read a given text aloud.	1. States how to give and receive instructions. 2. Listens and takes notes. Seeks clarification. 3. Reads.
CONCLUSION 5 minutes	(b) Asks them to explain the ways of reading a given text aloud. (b) Writes the exercise on the chalkboard.	(c) Explains the ways. (d) Writes the exercise in their exercise books.

CHALKBOARD LAYOUT

Date ENGLISH FORM 1

STUDY SKILLS

Reading Aloud 2

COMMENTS:

FORM ONE LESSON PLAN TERM 1, 2019

SCHOOL: __________________________________________________

TCHR’S NAME: ___________________________CLASS: FORM 1_______________

DATE: _______________________DAY:__________________WEEK:_____ LESSON: _____________

SKILL/TOPIC: READING/COMPREHENSION

SUB-TOPIC: Relating With Parents

OBJECTIVE: By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

Read the passage and respond to questions after it.
Use new words in sentences of their own.

T/L RESOURCES: Picture on students’ book/ Dictionaries for reference

REFERENCES: Secondary English Bk 1 Pg 29-31

Teacher’s Guides

PART/TIME	TEACHER’S ACTIVITES	LEARNER’S ACTIVITIES
INTRODUCTION 4 minutes	1. Talks about the issue raised in the passage without letting them know they are about to read a passage. 2. Asks students question concerning the issue. 3. Tells the students the passage they are about to read and asks them to open their course books.	1. Listens and seeks clarification. 2. Answers the questions asked. 3. Open their books.
DEVELOPMENT 33 minutes	1. Asks students to read the paragraphs in turns. 2. Asks students to retell the passage in their own words. Asks students some questions on the passage. Identifies some new words and asks students to give their meanings and use in each in their own words.	1. Reads the paragraphs. 2. Retells the passage. 3. Answers the questions. 4. Gives the meanings of the words and use them in sentences of their own.
CONCLUSION 3 minutes	1. Asks students to discuss the lessons they learn from the passage. 2. Gives an exercise.	1. Discusses the lessons they learn from the passage. 2. Writes the exercise.

CHALKBOARD LAYOUT

Date ENGLISH FORM 1

READING

COMPREHENSION

RELATING WITH PARENTS

COMMENTS:

FORM ONE LESSON PLAN TERM 1, 2019

SCHOOL: __________________________________________________

TCHR’S NAME: ___________________________CLASS: FORM 1_______________

DATE: _______________________DAY:__________________WEEK:_____ LESSON: _____________

SKILL/TOPIC: GRAMMAR

SUB-TOPIC: Articles

OBJECTIVE: By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

(a) Define an article.

(b) Use articles in sentences of their own.

T/L RESOURCES: Chart showing articles

REFERENCES: Secondary English Bk 1 Pg 31-33

Head Start English Bk 1, New Integrated English Bk 1, Teacher’s Guides

PART/TIME	TEACHER’S ACTIVITES	LEARNER’S ACTIVITIES
INTRODUCTION 5 minutes	1. Writes a sentence with articles. 2. Asks learners to identify the articles. 3. Tells them that they will be learning articles.	1. Reads the sentence. 2. Identifies the articles. 3. Listens and takes notes.
DEVELOPMENT 30 minutes	1. Writes more sentences. 2. Explains more examples of articles. 3. Displays the chart with the articles 4. Groups the learners and issues the handout with a paragraph. 5. Asks learners identify the articles.	1. Identifies articles. 2. Listens and seeks clarification. 3. Identifies their components. 4. Identifies articles. 5. Uses the words in sentences.
CONCLUSION 5 minutes	1. Asks students to use articles learnt in sentences. 2. Gives an exercise.	1. Uses them in sentences. 2. Writes the exercise.

CHALKBOARD LAYOUT

Date ENGLISH FORM 1

GRAMMAR

Articles

COMMENTS:

FORM ONE LESSON PLAN TERM 1, 2019

SCHOOL: __________________________________________________

TCHR’S NAME: ___________________________CLASS: FORM 1_______________

DATE: _______________________DAY:__________________WEEK:_____ LESSON: _____________

SKILL/TOPIC: WRITING

SUB-TOPIC: Use of a Comma

OBJECTIVE: By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

a) Write neatly and legibly.
b) Demonstrate ability to use the comma correctly.

T/L RESOURCES: Sample sentences

REFERENCES: Secondary English Bk 1 Pg 33-35

Head Start English Bk 1, New Integrated English Bk 1, Teacher’s Guides

PART/TIME	TEACHER’S ACTIVITES	LEARNER’S ACTIVITIES
INTRODUCTION 4 minutes	(a) Reviews the previous lesson. Write some sentences on the chalkboard in which the comma has been used. Asks the learners to identify the commas.	(a) Identifies the commas.
DEVELOPMENT 32 minutes	1. Explains the various uses of the comma. 2. Asks students to place comma appropriately in given sentences. 3. Groups the learners and gives them a passage. Asks them to use commas in the right places in the passage. 4. Asks individual students to say where commas should be placed.	1. Listens and seeks clarification. Takes notes. 2. Puts commas in the appropriate places. 3. Identifies the places where commas should appear. 4. Says where commas should be
CONCLUSION 4 Minutes	Gives an exercise	Writes the exercise

CHALKBOARD LAYOUT

Date ENGLISH FORM 2

WRITING

Punctuation

Commas

COMMENTS:

FORM ONE LESSON PLAN TERM 1, 2019

SCHOOL: __________________________________________________

TCHR’S NAME: ___________________________CLASS: FORM 1_______________

DATE: _______________________DAY:__________________WEEK:_____ LESSON: _____________

SKILL/TOPIC: LISTENING AND SPEAKING/ Oral Literature

SUB-TOPIC: Riddles

OBJECTIVE: By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

(a) Identify the features of a riddle.

(b) Discuss the functions of a riddle

T/L RESOURCES: Sample of a riddle

REFERENCES: Secondary English Bk 1 Pg 36-38

Oral Literature for Schools
Teacher’s Book

PART/TIME	TEACHER’S ACTIVITES	LEARNER’S ACTIVITIES
INTRODUCTION 5 minutes	(a) Reviews the previous lesson. Asks learners to define a riddle. (b) Tells the learners that they will be learning about riddles.	(a) Defines a riddle. (b) Listens and takes notes.
DEVELOPMENT 30 minutes	1. Poses a riddle to the learners. 2. Explains the features and functions of a riddle. 3. Explains steps in a riddling session 4. Groups the learners. Gives the learners samples of riddles. Asks learners to identify the features of a riddle in them. 5. Asks learners present their projects.	1. Deciphers the riddle. 2. Listens and takes notes. Seeks clarification. 3. Discusses. 4. Presents their projects.
CONCLUSION 5 minutes	(a) Asks them to pose riddles of their own. (b) Gives them an exercise.	(a) Pose their riddles. (b) Writes the exercise in their exercise books.

CHALKBOARD LAYOUT

Date ENGLISH FORM 1

LISTENING AND SPEAKING

Oral Literature

Riddles

COMMENTS:

FORM ONE LESSON PLAN TERM 1, 2019

SCHOOL: __________________________________________________

TCHR’S NAME: ___________________________CLASS: FORM 1_______________

DATE: _______________________DAY:__________________WEEK:_____ LESSON: _____________

SKILL/TOPIC: STUDY SKILLS

SUB-TOPIC: Speed Reading

OBJECTIVE: By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

(a) Appreciate the need of developing speed reading skills.

(b) Explain the importance of understanding what they read aloud.

T/L RESOURCES: Sample passage

REFERENCES: Secondary English Bk 1 Pg 38-41

Head Start English Bk1
New Integrated English Bk 1
Teacher’s Book

PART/TIME	TEACHER’S ACTIVITES	LEARNER’S ACTIVITIES
INTRODUCTION 5 minutes	1. Reviews the previous lesson. Asks the learners to prepare to read a text fast. 2. Tells the learners that they will be learning how to read a given text with speed.	1. Prepares to give and receive instructions. 2. Listens and takes notes.
DEVELOPMENT 30 minutes	1. Asks learners how to read a given text with speed. 2. Explains how one should read a given text with speed. 3. Groups the learners. Gives learners a question. Asks learners to read a given text with speed.	1. States how to give and receive instructions. 2. Listens and takes notes. Seeks clarification. 3. Reads.
CONCLUSION 5 minutes	(a) Asks them to explain the ways of reading a given text with speed. (b) Writes the exercise on the chalkboard.	(a) Explains the ways. (b) Writes the exercise in their exercise books.

CHALKBOARD LAYOUT

Date ENGLISH FORM 1

STUDY SKILLS

Speed Reading

COMMENTS:

FORM ONE LESSON PLAN TERM 1, 2019

SCHOOL: __________________________________________________

TCHR’S NAME: ___________________________CLASS: FORM 1_______________

DATE: _______________________DAY:__________________WEEK:_____ LESSON: _____________

SKILL/TOPIC: READING/COMPREHENSION

SUB-TOPIC: What About This Child?

OBJECTIVE: By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

Read the passage and respond to questions after it.
Use new words in sentences of their own.

T/L RESOURCES: Picture on students’ book/ Dictionaries for reference

REFERENCES: Secondary English Bk 1 Pg 41-42

Teacher’s Guides

PART/TIME	TEACHER’S ACTIVITES	LEARNER’S ACTIVITIES
INTRODUCTION 5 minutes	1. Talks about the issue raised in the passage without letting them know they are about to read a passage. 2. Asks students question concerning the issue. 4. Tells the students the passage they are about to read and asks them to open their course books.	1. Listens and seeks clarification. 4. Answers the questions asked. 5. Open their books.
DEVELOPMENT 30 minutes	1. Asks students to read the paragraphs in turns. 2. Asks students to retell the passage in their own words. 3. Asks students some questions on the passage. 4. Identifies some new words and asks students to give their meanings and use in each in their own words.	1. Reads the paragraphs. 2. Retells the passage. 3. Answers the questions. 4. Gives the meanings of the words and use them in sentences of their own.
CONCLUSION 5 minutes	1. Asks students to discuss the lessons they learn from the passage. 2. Gives an exercise.	1. Discusses the lessons they learn from the passage. 2. Writes the exercise.

CHALKBOARD LAYOUT

Date ENGLISH FORM 1

READING

COMPREHENSION

WHAT ABOUT THIS CHILD?

COMMENTS:

FORM ONE LESSON PLAN TERM 1, 2019

SCHOOL: __________________________________________________

TCHR’S NAME: ___________________________CLASS: FORM 1_______________

DATE: _______________________DAY:__________________WEEK:_____ LESSON: _____________

SKILL/TOPIC: GRAMMAR

SUB-TOPIC: Pronouns

OBJECTIVE: By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

(a) Define a pronoun.

(b) Use pronouns in sentences of their own.

T/L RESOURCES: Chart showing pronouns

REFERENCES: Secondary English Bk 1 Pg 43-44

Head Start English Bk 1, New Integrated English Bk 1, Teacher’s Guides

PART/TIME	TEACHER’S ACTIVITES	LEARNER’S ACTIVITIES
INTRODUCTION 5 minutes	(a) Writes a sentence with a pronoun. (b) Asks learners to identify the pronouns. (c) Tells them that they will be learning pronouns.	(a) Reads the sentence. (b) Identifies the pronouns. (c) Listens and takes notes.
DEVELOPMENT 30 minutes	(a) Writes more sentences. (b) Explains more examples of pronouns. (c) Displays the chart with the pronouns. (d) Groups the learners and issues the handout with a paragraph. (e) Asks learners identify the pronouns.	(a) Identifies pronouns. (b) Listens and seeks clarification. (c) Identifies their components. (d) Identifies pronouns. (e) Uses the words in sentences.
CONCLUSION 5minutes	(a) Asks students to use pronouns learnt in sentences. (b) Gives an exercise.	(a) Uses them in sentences. (b) Writes the exercise.

CHALKBOARD LAYOUT

Date ENGLISH FORM 1

GRAMMAR

Pronouns

COMMENTS:

FORM ONE LESSON PLAN TERM 1, 2019

SCHOOL: __________________________________________________

TCHR’S NAME: ___________________________CLASS: FORM 1_______________

DATE: _______________________DAY:__________________WEEK:_____ LESSON: _____________

SKILL/TOPIC: WRITING

SUB-TOPIC: Final Punctuation Marks

OBJECTIVE: By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

a) Write neatly and legibly.
b) Demonstrate ability to use the final punctuation marks.

T/L RESOURCES: Sample sentences

REFERENCES: Secondary English Bk 1 Pg 44-45

Head Start English Bk 1, New Integrated English Bk 1, Teacher’s Guides

PART/TIME	TEACHER’S ACTIVITES	LEARNER’S ACTIVITIES
INTRODUCTION 4 minutes	(a) Reviews the previous lesson. Write some sentences on the chalkboard in which the final punctuation marks has been used. Asks the learners to identify the final punctuation marks.	(b) Identifies the final punctuation marks.
DEVELOPMENT 31 minutes	(a) Explains the various uses of the final punctuation marks. (b) Asks students to place final punctuation marks appropriately in given sentences. (c) Groups the learners and gives them a passage. Asks them to use final punctuation marks in the right places in the passage. (d) Asks individual students to say where final punctuation marks should be placed.	(a) Listens and seeks clarification. Takes notes. (b) Puts final punctuation marks in the appropriate places. (c) Identifies the places where final punctuation marks commas should appear. (d) Says where final punctuation marks should be
CONCLUSION 5 Minutes	Gives an exercise	Writes the exercise

CHALKBOARD LAYOUT

Date ENGLISH FORM 1

WRITING

Punctuation

Final punctuation Marks

COMMENTS:

FORM ONE LESSON PLAN TERM 1, 2019

SCHOOL: __________________________________________________

TCHR’S NAME: ___________________________CLASS: FORM 1_______________

DATE: _______________________DAY:__________________WEEK:_____ LESSON: _____________

SKILL/TOPIC: WORD STUDY

SUB-TOPIC: Commonly Confused Words

OBJECTIVE: By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

Write neatly and legibly.
Spell given words correctly.

T/L RESOURCES: Posters with commonly confused words

REFERENCES: Secondary English Bk 1 Pg 41-47

Head Start English Bk 1, New Integrated English Bk 1, Teacher’s Guides

PART/TIME	TEACHER’S ACTIVITES	LEARNER’S ACTIVITIES
INTRODUCTION 5 minutes	(c) Asks students to mention some words that they commonly confuse. (d) Tells them the reasons behind confusing of words.	(c) Mention the words they commonly confuse. (d) Listens and takes notes.
DEVELOPMENT 30 minutes	1. Read out a list of commonly confuse words. 2. Tells learners to write them down in their exercise books. 3. Asks the learners to spell each word as they mark for one another. 4.Summarizes the points to consider when spelling words	1. Listens. 2. Writes down the answers. 3. Mark for one another. 4.Listens and takes down notes
CONCLUSION 5 minutes	1. Asks some students to give more commonly confused words. 2. Gives an exercise in the students’ textbook.	1. Gives more commonly confused words. 2. Writes the exercise.

CHALKBOARD LAYOUT

Date ENGLISH FORM 3

WORD STUDY

Commonly Confused Words

COMMENTS:

FORM ONE LESSON PLAN TERM 1, 2019

SCHOOL: __________________________________________________

TCHR’S NAME: ___________________________CLASS: FORM 1_______________

DATE: _______________________DAY:__________________WEEK:_____ LESSON: _____________

SKILL/TOPIC: STUDY SKILLS

SUB-TOPIC: Using the Library

OBJECTIVE: By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

Identify different types of libraries
Identify the materials found in a library
Identify the different sections of a library.

T/L RESOURCES: Textbooks, library

REFERENCES: Secondary English Bk 1 Pg 47-48

Head Start English Bk 1
New Integrated English Bk 1
Teacher’s Book

PART/TIME	TEACHER’S ACTIVITES	LEARNER’S ACTIVITIES
INTRODUCTION 5 minutes	(a) Asks students if they have visited the school library yet. (b) Tells them that they would be learning how to use the library.	(a) Says if they have visited the library. (b) Listens and takes notes.
DEVELOPMENT 30 minutes	(a) Outlines the different materials found in a library. (b) Issues a handout with the different sections of a library. (c) Explains to the learners the type of libraries that are there. (d) Explains how to locate books in a library.	(a) Listens and draws the layout of a library. (b) Listens and writes down notes. (c) Writes down the notes. (d) Writes down.
CONCLUSION 5 minutes	(a) Asks the learners to locate specific books in the library. (b) Gives an exercise.	(a) Locates the books. (b) Writes the exercise.

CHALKBOARD LAYOUT

Date ENGLISH FORM 1

STUDY SKILLS

Using the Library

COMMENTS:

FORM ONE LESSON PLAN TERM 1, 2019

SCHOOL: __________________________________________________

TCHR’S NAME: ___________________________CLASS: FORM 1_______________

DATE: _______________________DAY:__________________WEEK:_____ LESSON: _____________

SKILL/TOPIC: READING/COMPREHENSION

SUB-TOPIC: Alfred Nobel – A Man of Contrasts

OBJECTIVE: By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

Read the passage and respond to questions after it.
Use new words in sentences of their own.

T/L RESOURCES: Picture on students’ book/ Dictionaries for reference

REFERENCES: Secondary English Bk 1 Pg 49-50

Head Start English Bk 1, New Integrated English Bk 1, Teacher’s Guides

PART/TIME	TEACHER’S ACTIVITES	LEARNER’S ACTIVITIES
INTRODUCTION 4 minutes	(a) Talks about the issue raised in the passage without letting them know they are about to read a passage. (b) Asks students question concerning the issue. (c) Tells the students the passage they are about to read and asks them to open their course books.	(a) Listens and seeks clarification. (b) Answers the questions asked. (c) Opens their books.
DEVELOPMENT 33 minutes	(a) Asks students to read the paragraphs in turns. (b) Asks students to retell the passage in their own words. (c) Asks students some questions on the passage. (d) Identifies some new words and asks students to give their meanings and use in each in their own words.	(a) Reads the paragraphs. (b) Retells the passage. (c) Answers the questions. (d) Gives the meanings of the words and use them in sentences of their own.
CONCLUSION 3 minutes	(a) Asks students to discuss the lessons they learn from the passage. (b) Gives an exercise.	(a) Discusses the lessons they learn from the passage. (b) Writes the exercise.

CHALKBOARD LAYOUT

Date ENGLISH FORM 1

READING

COMPREHENSION

ALFRED NOBEL – A MAN OF CONTRASTS

COMMENTS:

FORM ONE LESSON PLAN TERM 1, 2019

SCHOOL: __________________________________________________

TCHR’S NAME: ___________________________CLASS: FORM 1_______________

DATE: _______________________DAY:__________________WEEK:_____ LESSON: _____________

SKILL/TOPIC: GRAMMAR

SUB-TOPIC: Verbs

OBJECTIVE: By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

(a) Define a verb.

(b) Use verbs in sentences of their own.

T/L RESOURCES: Chart showing verbs

REFERENCES: Secondary English Bk 1 Pg 50-54

Head Start English Bk 1, New Integrated English Bk 1, Teacher’s Guides

PART/TIME	TEACHER’S ACTIVITES	LEARNER’S ACTIVITIES
INTRODUCTION 5 minutes	(a) Writes a sentence with a verb. (b) Asks learners to identify the verb. (c) Tells them that they will be learning verbs.	(a) Reads the sentence. (b) Identifies the verb. (c) Listens and takes notes.
DEVELOPMENT 30 minutes	(a) Writes more sentences. (b) Explains more examples of verbs. (c) Displays the chart with the verbs. (d) Groups the learners and issues the handout with a paragraph. (e) Asks learners identify the verbs.	(a) Identifies verbs. (b) Listens and seeks clarification. (c) Identifies their components. (d) Identifies verbs. (e) Uses the words in sentences.
CONCLUSION 5 minutes	(a) Asks students to use verbs learnt in sentences. (b) Gives an exercise.	(a) Uses them in sentences. (b) Writes the exercise.

CHALKBOARD LAYOUT

Date ENGLISH FORM 1

GRAMMAR

Verbs

COMMENTS:

FORM ONE LESSON PLAN TERM 1, 2019

SCHOOL: __________________________________________________

TCHR’S NAME: ___________________________CLASS: FORM 1_______________

DATE: _______________________DAY:__________________WEEK:_____ LESSON: _____________

SKILL/TOPIC: WRITING

SUB-TOPIC: Building Sentence skills

OBJECTIVE: By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

a) Write neatly and legibly.
b) Recognize various types of sentence construction errors
c) Write properly constructed sentences

T/L RESOURCES: Sample sentences with construction errors

REFERENCES: Secondary English Bk 1 Pg 54-55

Head Start English Bk 1, New Integrated English Bk 1, Teacher’s Guides

PART/TIME	TEACHER’S ACTIVITES	LEARNER’S ACTIVITIES
INTRODUCTION 4 minutes	Reviews the previous lesson. Write some sentences on the chalkboard in which there are construction errors. Asks the learners to identify the errors.	Identifies the errors.
DEVELOPMENT 32minutes	1. Explains the errors. 2. Asks students to construct sentences given correctly. 3. Groups the learners and gives them a passage. Asks them to identify construction errors in a given passage. 4. Asks individual students to identify the construction errors in the passage.	1. Listens and seeks clarification. 2. Takes notes. 3. Identifies the construction errors in the passage. 4.Identifies the construction errors
CONCLUSION 4 minutes	(f) Gives an exercise.	(b) Writes the exercise.

CHALKBOARD LAYOUT

Date ENGLISH FORM 1

WRITING

Building Sentence Skills

COMMENTS:

FORM ONE LESSON PLAN TERM 1, 2019

SCHOOL: __________________________________________________

TCHR’S NAME: ___________________________CLASS: FORM 1_______________

DATE: _______________________DAY:__________________WEEK:_____ LESSON: _____________

SKILL/TOPIC: LISTENING AND SPEAKING

SUB-TOPIC: Problematic Sounds

OBJECTIVE: By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

Write neatly and legibly.
Pronounce the sounds /l/, /r/, /t/ and /d/ correctly
Identify other sounds they find problematic

T/L RESOURCES: Posters with problematic sounds

REFERENCES: Secondary English Bk 1 Pg 56-57

Head Start English Bk 1, New Integrated English Bk 1, Teacher’s Guides

PART/TIME	TEACHER’S ACTIVITES	LEARNER’S ACTIVITIES
INTRODUCTION 5 minutes	(a) Asks students to mention some problematic sounds. (b) Tells them the reasons behind problematic sounds.	(a) Mention the problematic sounds. (b) Listens and takes notes.
DEVELOPMENT 30 minutes	1. Read out a list of problematic sounds. 2. Tells learners to write them down in their exercise books. 3. Asks the learners to pronounce problematic sounds. 4.Summarizes how to overcome the problem of problematic sounds	1. Listens. 2. Writes down the answers. 3. Pronounces the problematic sounds 4.Listens and takes down notes
CONCLUSION 5 minutes	1. Asks some students to give more problematic sounds. 2. Gives an exercise in the students’ textbook.	1. Gives more problematic sounds. 2. Writes the exercise.

CHALKBOARD LAYOUT

Date ENGLISH FORM 1

WORD STUDY

Problematic Sounds

COMMENTS:

FORM ONE LESSON PLAN TERM 1, 2019

SCHOOL: __________________________________________________

TCHR’S NAME: ___________________________CLASS: FORM 1_______________

DATE: _______________________DAY:__________________WEEK:_____ LESSON: _____________

SKILL/TOPIC: STUDY SKILLS

SUB-TOPIC: Using the Dictionary

OBJECTIVE: By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

Familiarize themselves with the alphabetic order of words.
Look up words easily in a dictionary.
Use the dictionary effectively.

T/L RESOURCES: Textbooks, Dictionary

REFERENCES: Secondary English Bk 1 Pg 57-58

Head Start English Bk 1
New Integrated English Bk 1
Teacher’s Book

PART/TIME	TEACHER’S ACTIVITES	LEARNER’S ACTIVITIES
INTRODUCTION 4 minutes	(a) Asks students if they have dictionaries. (b) Tells them that they would be learning how to use the dictionary.	(a) Says if they have dictionaries. (b) Listens and takes notes.
DEVELOPMENT 31 minutes	(a) Outlines the importance of the dictionary. (b) Explains how to use (c) Explains how to locate words in a dictionary.	(a) Listens and writes down notes. (b) Listens and writes down notes. (c) Writes down the notes.
CONCLUSION 5 minutes	(a) Asks the learners to locate specific words in their dictionaries. (b) Gives an exercise.	(a) Locates the words. (b) Writes the exercise.

CHALKBOARD LAYOUT

Date ENGLISH FORM 1

STUDY SKILLS

Using the Dictionary

COMMENTS:

FORM ONE LESSON PLAN TERM 1, 2019

SCHOOL: __________________________________________________

TCHR’S NAME: ___________________________CLASS: FORM 1_______________

DATE: _______________________DAY:__________________WEEK:_____ LESSON: _____________

SKILL/TOPIC: READING/COMPREHENSION

SUB-TOPIC: Gender Violence and HIV/AIDS

OBJECTIVE: By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

Read the passage and respond to questions after it.
Use new words in sentences of their own.

T/L RESOURCES: Picture on students’ book/ Dictionaries for reference

REFERENCES: Secondary English Bk 1 Pg 58-59

Teacher’s Guides

PART/TIME	TEACHER’S ACTIVITES	LEARNER’S ACTIVITIES
INTRODUCTION 4 minutes	(a) Talks about the issue raised in the passage without letting them know they are about to read a passage. (b) Asks students question concerning the issue. (c) Tells the students the passage they are about to read and asks them to open their course books.	(a) Listens and seeks clarification. (b) Answers the questions asked. (c) Opens their books.
DEVELOPMENT 32 minutes	(a) Asks students to read the paragraphs in turns. (b) Asks students to retell the passage in their own words. (c) Asks students some questions on the passage. (d) Identifies some new words and asks students to give their meanings and use in each in their own words.	(a) Reads the paragraphs. (b) Retells the passage. (c) Answers the questions. (d) Gives the meanings of the words and use them in sentences of their own.
CONCLUSION 4 minutes	(a) Asks students to discuss the lessons they learn from the passage. (b) Gives an exercise.	(a) Discusses the lessons they learn from the passage. (b) Writes the exercise.

CHALKBOARD LAYOUT

Date ENGLISH FORM 1

READING

COMPREHENSION

GENDER VIOLENCE AND HIV/AIDS

COMMENTS:

FORM ONE LESSON PLAN TERM 1, 2019

SCHOOL: __________________________________________________

TCHR’S NAME: ___________________________CLASS: FORM 1_______________

DATE: _______________________DAY:__________________WEEK:_____ LESSON: _____________

SKILL/TOPIC: GRAMMAR

SUB-TOPIC: The Simple Past Tense

OBJECTIVE: By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

(a) Distinguish between regular and irregular verbs in the past tense.

(b) Form the past tense of regular and irregular verbs

T/L RESOURCES: Chart showing regular and irregular verbs in simple past tense

REFERENCES: Secondary English Bk 1 Pg 60-62 Teacher’s Guides

PART/TIME	TEACHER’S ACTIVITES	LEARNER’S ACTIVITIES
INTRODUCTION 5 minutes	(a) Writes two sentences with regular and irregular verbs in simple past tense. (b) Asks learners to identify the regular and irregular verbs in simple past tense. (c) Tells them that they will be learning regular and irregular verbs in simple past tense.	(a) Reads the sentence. (b) Identifies the regular and irregular verbs in simple past tense. (c) Listens and takes notes.
DEVELOPMENT 30 minutes	(a) Writes more sentences with regular and irregular verbs in simple past tense. (b) Explains more examples of regular and irregular verbs in simple past tense. (c) Displays the chart with regular and irregular verbs in simple past tense. (d) Groups the learners and issues the handout with regular and irregular verbs in simple past tense. (e) Asks learners identify the regular and irregular verbs in simple past tense.	(a) Identifies regular and irregular verbs in simple past tense. (b) Listens and seeks clarification. (c) Identifies regular and irregular verbs in simple past tense. (d) Identifies regular and irregular verbs in simple past tense. (e) Uses the words in sentences.
CONCLUSION 5 minutes	(a) Asks students to use regular and irregular verbs in simple past tense in sentences. (b) Gives an exercise.	(a) Uses them in sentences. (b) Writes the exercise.

CHALKBOARD LAYOUT

Date ENGLISH FORM 1

GRAMMAR

Regular and Irregular Verbs in Simple Past Tense

COMMENTS:

FORM ONE LESSON PLAN TERM 1, 2019

SCHOOL: __________________________________________________

TCHR’S NAME: ___________________________CLASS: FORM 1_______________

DATE: _______________________DAY:__________________WEEK:_____ LESSON: _____________

SKILL/TOPIC: WRITING

SUB-TOPIC: Diaries

OBJECTIVE: By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

a) Write neatly and legibly.
b) Demonstrate ability to write diaries.

T/L RESOURCES: Sample diaries

REFERENCES: Secondary English Bk 1 Pg 62-64

Head Start English Bk 1, New Integrated English Bk 1, Teacher’s Guides

PART/TIME	TEACHER’S ACTIVITES	LEARNER’S ACTIVITIES
INTRODUCTION 5 minutes	(a) Reviews the previous lesson. Read samples diaries in class	(a) Listens and asks for clarification.
DEVELOPMENT 30 minutes	1. Explains the formats of diaries. 2. Asks students to write notes on diaries. 3. Groups the learners and tells them to write diaries following the format given. 4. Asks individual students to read their diaries.	1. Listens and seeks clarification. Takes notes. 2. Writes down notes. 3. Discusses the question. 4. Reads out their diaries.
CONCLUSION 5minutes	(a) Gives an exercise.	(a) Writes the exercise.

CHALKBOARD LAYOUT

Date ENGLISH FORM 1

WRITING

Diaries

COMMENTS:

FORM ONE LESSON PLAN TERM 1, 2019

SCHOOL: __________________________________________________

TCHR’S NAME: ___________________________CLASS: FORM 1_______________

DATE: _______________________DAY:__________________WEEK:_____ LESSON: _____________

SKILL/TOPIC: LISTENING AND SPEAKING

SUB-TOPIC: Debate

OBJECTIVE: By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

(a) Appreciate the importance of having debating skills

(b) Acquire debating skills.

T/L RESOURCES: Sample of a myth

REFERENCES: Secondary English Bk 1 Pg 66-67

Teacher’s Book

PART/TIME	TEACHER’S ACTIVITES	LEARNER’S ACTIVITIES
INTRODUCTION 5 minutes	(a) Reviews the previous lesson. Asks learners to explain the importance of debate. (b) Tells the learners that they will be learning about debating skills.	(a) Explains the importance. (b) Listens and takes notes.
DEVELOPMENT 31 minutes	1. Outlines the importance of debate. 2. Explains the process of a debating session. 3. Groups the learners into two. Gives the learners a motion for debate. Asks learners to debate the motion according to the procedure outlined.	1. Listens and seeks for clarification. 2. Listens and takes notes. Seeks clarification. 3. Participates in debating the motion.
CONCLUSION 4 minutes	(a) Asks them to prepare for a second motion. (b) Gives them an exercise.	(a) Prepares for the motion. (b) Writes the exercise in their exercise books.

CHALKBOARD LAYOUT

Date ENGLISH FORM 1

LISTENING AND SPEAKING

DEBATE

COMMENTS:

FORM ONE LESSON PLAN TERM 1, 2019

SCHOOL: __________________________________________________

TCHR’S NAME: ___________________________CLASS: FORM 1_______________

DATE: _______________________DAY:__________________WEEK:_____ LESSON: _____________

SKILL/TOPIC: STUDY SKILLS

SUB-TOPIC: Using the Dictionary 2

OBJECTIVE: By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

Describe the various types of information found in a dictionary.
Use the dictionary effectively.

T/L RESOURCES: Textbooks, Dictionary

REFERENCES: Secondary English Bk 1 Pg 67-68

Head Start English Bk 1
New Integrated English Bk 1
Teacher’s Book

PART/TIME	TEACHER’S ACTIVITES	LEARNER’S ACTIVITIES
INTRODUCTION 5 minutes	(a) Asks students to discuss the types of information found in the dictionary. (b) Tells them that they would be learning about types of information found in the dictionary.	(a) Discusses the types of information found in dictionaries. (b) Listens and takes notes.
DEVELOPMENT 30 minutes	(a) Outlines the types of information found in the dictionary. (b) Explains how to search for specific information. (c) Demonstrates how to search for specific information in a dictionary.	(a) Listens and writes down notes. (b) Listens and writes down notes. (c) Copies the actions of the teacher.
CONCLUSION 5 minutes	(a) Asks the learners to search for specific information in their dictionaries. (b) Gives an exercise.	(a) Locates specific information. (b) Writes the exercise.

CHALKBOARD LAYOUT

Date ENGLISH FORM 1

STUDY SKILLS

Using the Dictionary 2

COMMENTS:

FORM ONE LESSON PLAN TERM 1, 2019

SCHOOL: __________________________________________________

TCHR’S NAME: ___________________________CLASS: FORM 1_______________

DATE: _______________________DAY:__________________WEEK:_____ LESSON: _____________

SKILL/TOPIC: READING/COMPREHENSION

SUB-TOPIC: The Worrying Drug Problem in Kenya

OBJECTIVE: By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

Read the passage and respond to questions after it.

(b) Use new words in sentences of their own.

Appreciate the dangers of drug abuse.

T/L RESOURCES: Picture on students’ book/ Dictionaries for reference

REFERENCES: Secondary English Bk 1 Pg 68-70, Teacher’s Guides

PART/TIME	TEACHER’S ACTIVITES	LEARNER’S ACTIVITIES
INTRODUCTION 4 minutes	(a) Talks about the issue raised in the passage without letting them know they are about to read a passage. (b) Asks students question concerning the issue. (c) Tells the students the passage they are about to read and asks them to open their course books.	(a) Listens and seeks clarification. (b) Answers the questions asked. (c) Opens their books.
DEVELOPMENT 32 minutes	(a) Asks students to read the paragraphs in turns. (b) Asks students to retell the passage in their own words. (c) Asks students some questions on the passage. (d) Identifies some new words and asks students to give their meanings and use in each in their own words.	(a) Reads the paragraphs. (b) Retells the passage. (c) Answers the questions. (d) Gives the meanings of the words and use them in sentences of their own.
CONCLUSION 4 minutes	(a) Asks students to discuss the lessons they learn from the passage. (b) Gives an exercise.	(a) Discusses the lessons they learn from the passage. (b) Writes the exercise.

CHALKBOARD LAYOUT

Date ENGLISH FORM 1

READING

COMPREHENSION

THE WORRYING DRUG PROBLEM IN KENYA

COMMENTS:

FORM ONE LESSON PLAN TERM 1, 2019

SCHOOL: __________________________________________________

TCHR’S NAME: ___________________________CLASS: FORM 1_______________

DATE: _______________________DAY:__________________WEEK:_____ LESSON: _____________

SKILL/TOPIC: GRAMMAR

SUB-TOPIC: The Continuous Aspect

OBJECTIVE: By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

(a) Master spelling rules of present and past participle verbs.

(b) Use the continuous and the perfect aspects correctly.

T/L RESOURCES: Chart showing continuous aspect in sentences.

REFERENCES: Secondary English Bk 1 Pg 70-73

Head Start English Bk 1, New Integrated English Bk 1, Teacher’s Guides

PART/TIME	TEACHER’S ACTIVITES	LEARNER’S ACTIVITIES
INTRODUCTION 5 minutes	(a) Writes two sentences continuous aspect. (b) Asks learners to identify the continuous aspect in the sentences. (c) Tells them that they will be learning about continuous aspect in sentences.	(a) Reads the sentence. (b) Identifies the continuous aspect in sentences. (c) Listens and takes notes.
DEVELOPMENT 30 minutes	(a) Writes more sentences with continuous aspect. (b) Explains more examples of continuous aspect in sentences. (c) Displays the chart with continuous aspect in sentences. (d) Groups the learners and issues the handout with continuous aspect in sentences. (e) Asks learners identify the continuous aspect in sentences	(a) Identifies the continuous aspect in sentences. (b) Listens and seeks clarification. (c) Identifies the continuous aspect in sentences. (d) Identifies the continuous aspect in sentences. (e) Uses the words in sentences.
CONCLUSION 5 minutes	(a) Asks students to use continuous aspect in sentences. (b) Gives an exercise.	(a) Uses them in sentences. (b) Writes the exercise.

CHALKBOARD LAYOUT

Date ENGLISH FORM 1

GRAMMAR

Continuous Aspect in Sentences

COMMENTS:

FORM ONE LESSON PLAN TERM 1, 2019

SCHOOL: __________________________________________________

TCHR’S NAME: ___________________________CLASS: FORM 1_______________

DATE: _______________________DAY:__________________WEEK:_____ LESSON: _____________

SKILL/TOPIC: WRITING

SUB-TOPIC: Informal Letters

OBJECTIVE: By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

a) Write neatly and legibly.
b) Demonstrate ability to write informal letters.

T/L RESOURCES: Sample diaries

REFERENCES: Secondary English Bk 1 Pg 73-75

Head Start English Bk 1, New Integrated English Bk 1, Teacher’s Guides

PART/TIME	TEACHER’S ACTIVITES	LEARNER’S ACTIVITIES
INTRODUCTION 6 minutes	(a) Reviews the previous lesson. Read samples of informal letters in class.	(a) Listens and asks for clarification.
DEVELOPMENT 31 minutes	1. Explains the formats of informal letters. 2. Asks students to write notes on informal letters. 3. Groups the learners and tells them to write informal letters following the format given. 4. Asks individual students to read their informal letters.	1. Listens and seeks clarification. Takes notes. 2. Writes down notes. 3. Discusses the question. 4. Reads out their informal letters.
CONCLUSION 5minutes	(a) Gives an exercise.	(a) Writes the exercise.

CHALKBOARD LAYOUT

Date ENGLISH FORM 1

WRITING

Informal Letters

COMMENTS:

FORM ONE LESSON PLAN TERM 1, 2019

SCHOOL: __________________________________________________

TCHR’S NAME: ___________________________CLASS: FORM 1_______________

DATE: _______________________DAY:__________________WEEK:_____ LESSON: _____________

SKILL/TOPIC: LISTENING AND SPEAKING

SUB-TOPIC: Intonation

OBJECTIVE: By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

(a) Use appropriate intonation in sentences correctly

(b) Demonstrate appreciation of the fact that intonation contributes to meaning

T/L RESOURCES: Charts, blackboard

REFERENCES: Secondary English Bk 1 Pg 76-78

Head Start English Bk 1
New Integrated English Bk 1
Teacher’s Book

PART/TIME	TEACHER’S ACTIVITES	LEARNER’S ACTIVITIES
INTRODUCTION 4 minutes	(a) Reviews the previous lesson. Asks how speakers prepare to use intonation in sentences appropriately. (b) Tells the learners that they will be learning how to use intonation in sentences correctly.	(a) Explains how a speaker prepares to deliver a speech. (b) Listens and takes notes.
DEVELOPMENT 32 minutes	1. Asks learners to use intonation in sentences appropriately and correctly. 2. Explains how stress to use intonation in sentences and what dictates when to use rising or falling intonation. 3. Groups the learners. Tell them to indicate intonation in sentences given. 4. Asks learners present their answers.	1. Uses intonation in sentences appropriately. 2. Listens and takes notes. Seeks clarification. 3. Discusses. 4. Presents their answers.
CONCLUSION 4 minutes	a) Review what determines the intonation to use in sentences. b) Writes the exercise on the chalkboard.	a) Explains the ways. b) Writes the exercise in their exercise books.

CHALKBOARD LAYOUT

Date ENGLISH FORM 1

LISTENING AND SPEAKING

Intonation

COMMENTS:

FORM THREE LESSON PLAN TERM 1, 2019

SCHOOL: __________________________________________________

TCHR’S NAME: ___________________________CLASS: FORM 3_______________

DATE: _______________________DAY:__________________WEEK:_____ LESSON: _____________

SKILL/TOPIC: STUDY SKILLS

SUB-TOPIC: Studying Poetry 1

OBJECTIVE: By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

Recognize a poem when they see one.
Appreciate the experience of a poem.
Describe the identity of the persona in a poem.

T/L RESOURCES: Poems to be read

REFERENCES: Secondary English Bk 3 Pg 78-80

Understanding Poetry
Teacher’s Book

PART/TIME	TEACHER’S ACTIVITES	LEARNER’S ACTIVITIES
INTRODUCTION 5 minutes	(a) Asks students to give the features of a poem. (b) Tells them that they would be learning about persona in a poem.	(a) Gives the features of a poem. (b) Listens and takes notes.
DEVELOPMENT 30 minutes	1. Reads through a given poem. 2. Identifies the key words in the poem and explains their meanings. 3. Explains who the persona is in a poem. 4. Groups the learners. Gives them another poem and tells them to identify the persona in the poem. 5. Asks the groups to present their findings.	1. Listens to the poem 2. Takes down notes. Discusses the poem and writes down the key words Presents their findings
CONCLUSION 5 minutes	(a) Gives an exercise in the textbook.	(a) Writes the exercise.

CHALKBOARD LAYOUT

Date ENGLISH FORM 1

READING

Reading Skills

Studying Poetry

COMMENTS:

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

FORM ONE LESSON PLAN TERM 1, 2019

SCHOOL: __________________________________________________

TCHR’S NAME: ___________________________CLASS: FORM 1_______________

DATE: _______________________DAY:__________________WEEK:_____ LESSON: _____________

SKILL/TOPIC: READING/COMPREHENSION

SUB-TOPIC: Disability is not Inability

OBJECTIVE: By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

Read the passage and respond to questions after it.
Use new words in sentences of their own.
Appreciate that disability is not inability.

T/L RESOURCES: Picture on students’ book/ Dictionaries for reference

REFERENCES: Secondary English Bk 1 Pg 80-82, Teacher’s Guides

PART/TIME	TEACHER’S ACTIVITES	LEARNER’S ACTIVITIES
INTRODUCTION 4 minutes	(a) Talks about the issue raised in the passage without letting them know they are about to read a passage. (b) Asks students question concerning the issue. (c) Tells the students the passage they are about to read and asks them to open their course books.	(a) Listens and seeks clarification. (b) Answers the questions asked. (c) Opens their books.
DEVELOPMENT 32 minutes	(a) Asks students to read the paragraphs in turns. (b) Asks students to retell the passage in their own words. (c) Asks students some questions on the passage. (d) Identifies some new words and asks students to give their meanings and use in each in their own words.	(a) Reads the paragraphs. (b) Retells the passage. (c) Answers the questions. (d) Gives the meanings of the words and use them in sentences of their own.
CONCLUSION 4 minutes	(a) Asks students to discuss the lessons they learn from the passage. (b) Gives an exercise.	(a) Discusses the lessons they learn from the passage. (b) Writes the exercise.

CHALKBOARD LAYOUT

Date ENGLISH FORM 1

READING

COMPREHENSION

DISABILITY IS NOT INABILITY

COMMENTS:

FORM ONE LESSON PLAN TERM 1, 2019

SCHOOL: __________________________________________________

TCHR’S NAME: ___________________________CLASS: FORM 1_______________

DATE: _______________________DAY:__________________WEEK:_____ LESSON: _____________

SKILL/TOPIC: GRAMMAR

SUB-TOPIC: Adjectives

OBJECTIVE: By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

(a) Define an adjective.

(b) Use adjectives in sentences of their own.

T/L RESOURCES: Chart showing adjectives

REFERENCES: Secondary English Bk 1 Pg 82-84

Head Start English Bk 1, New Integrated English Bk 1, Teacher’s Guides

PART/TIME	TEACHER’S ACTIVITES	LEARNER’S ACTIVITIES
INTRODUCTION 5 minutes	(a) Writes a sentence with an adjective. (b) Asks learners to identify the adjective. (c) Tells them that they will be learning adjectives.	(a) Reads the sentence. (b) Identifies the adjective. (c) Listens and takes notes.
DEVELOPMENT 30 minutes	(a) Writes more sentences. (b) Explains more examples of adjectives. (c) Displays the chart with the adjectives. (d) Groups the learners and issues the handout with a paragraph. (e) Asks learners identify the adjectives.	(a) Identifies adjectives. (b) Listens and seeks clarification. (c) Identifies their components. (d) Identifies adjectives. (e) Uses the words in sentences.
CONCLUSION 5 minutes	(a) Asks students to use adjectives learnt in sentences. (b) Gives an exercise.	(a) Uses them in sentences. (b) Writes the exercise.

CHALKBOARD LAYOUT

Date ENGLISH FORM 1

GRAMMAR

Adjectives

COMMENTS:

Teachers' Resources

CHEMISTRY NOTES FORM 3 PDF

October 5, 2025 Maverick John Leave a comment

UNIT 2: NITROGEN AND ITS COMPOUNDS.

Unit checklist.

Introduction
Preparation of nitrogen

Isolation from air
Isolation from liquid air
Laboratory preparation
Preparation from ammonia
Properties of nitrogen
Oxides of nitrogen
- Nitrogen (I) oxide
- Nitrogen (II) oxide
- Nitrogen (IV) oxide

GET THE FREE PDF NOTES HERE; Free Chemistry notes, revision questions, KCSE past Papers, Exams, Marking Schemes, Topical revision materials, Syllabus and Many more

Action of heat on nitrates.
Ammonia gas

Preparation
Laboratory preparation
Preparation from caustic soda
Test for ammonia
Fountain experiment
Properties and reactions of ammonia
Large scale manufacture of ammonia gas: the Haber process
Uses of ammonia

Nitric (V) acid

Laboratory preparation
Industrial manufacture of nitric (V) acid: The Otswalds process.
Reactions of dilute nitric acid
Reactions of concentrated nitric acid
Uses of nitric acid

Test for nitrates.
Pollution effects of nitrogen and its compounds
Reducing pollution environmental pollution by nitrogen compounds.

Introduction:

– About 78% of air is nitrogen, existing as N₂ molecules.

– The two atoms in the molecules are firmly held together.

– Nitrogen does not take part in many chemical reactions due to its low reactivity.

– Its presence in air dilutes oxygen and slows down respiration, burning and rusting.

Preparation of nitrogen.

(a). Isolation from air.

(i). Apparatus.

(ii). Procedure.

– Air is driven out of the aspirator by passing water into the aspirator from a tap.

– The air is the passed through a wash bottle containing concentrated potassium hydroxide solution.

Reason:

– To remove carbon (IV) oxide from air.

Equations:

2KOH_(aq) + CO_2(g) K₂CO_3(aq) + H₂O_(l)

Then

K₂CO_3(aq) + H₂O_(l) + CO_2(g) 2KHCO_3(aq)

Thus;

KOH_(aq) + CO_2(g) KHCO_3(aq)

– The carbon (IV) oxide-free air is then passed into a combustion tube with heated copper metal.

Reason:

– To remove oxygen from the air.

Note:

In this reaction the brown copper metal is oxidized to black copper (II) oxide.

Equation:

2Cu_(s) + O_2(g) 2CuO_(s)

Brown Black

Note:

– Alternatively oxygen can be removed by passing the carbon (IV) oxide-free air through pyrogallic acid.

– The remaining part of air is mainly nitrogen and is collected over water.

Note:

– Nitrogen obtained by this method contains noble gases like xenon, argon etc as impurities.

– Purer nitrogen may be obtained by heating ammonium nitrite.

Equation:

NH₄NO_3(s) ^Heat N_2(g) + 2H₂O_(g)

Summary.

(b). Removal from liquid air.

– Liquid air is primarily a mixture of nitrogen and oxygen with small amounts of noble gases.

– This method involves manufacture of liquid air and consequent fractional distillation.

The chemical process.

Step 1: removal of dust particles.

– Dust particles are first removed by either of the two processes:

Electrostatic precipitation

(i). Electrostatic precipitation:

– Air is passed through oppositely charged plates hence an electric field.

– Dust particles (charged) are consequently attracted to plates of opposite charges.

Diagram: electrostatic precipitation:

(ii). Filtration:

– The air is passed through a series of filters which traps dust particles as the air is forced through.

Step 2: removal of carbon (IV) oxide.

– The dust-free air is passed through a solution of potassium hydroxide; to remove carbon (IV) oxide.

Equations:

2KOH_(aq) + CO_2(g) K₂CO_3(aq) + H₂O_(l)

Then:

K₂CO_3(aq) + H₂O_(l) + CO_2(g) 2KHCO_3(aq)

(Excess)

– Alternatively, sodium hydroxide may be used in place of potassium hydroxide.

Step 3: Removal of water vapour.

– The dustless, carbon (IV) oxide-free air is next passed into a chamber with concentrated sulphuric acid or anhydrous calcium chloride in which water vapour is separated and removed.

Note:

To remove water vapour, air may be alternatively passed into a freezing chamber where it is condensed at -25^oC.

– The water vapour solidifies and is then absorbed by silica gel and separated out.

– Air is freed from carbon (IV) oxide, water vapour and dust particles (before compression) so as to prevent blockage of the pipes caused by solid materials at liquefaction temperatures i.e. carbon (IV) oxide and water vapour form solids which may block the collection pipes.

Step 4: Liquification of air.

– The air free from dust, carbon (IV) oxide and water vapour is then compressed at about 200 atmospheres, cooled and allowed to expand through fine jet.

– This sudden expansion causes further cooling and the gases eventually liquefy.

– The liquid is tapped off through a valve while gas which has escaped liquefaction returns to the compressor.

– Liquid air is a transparent pale blue liquid.

– This liquid is then fractionally distilled.

Step 5: Fractional distillation of liquid air.

– The boiling point of nitrogen is -196^oC (77K) and that of oxygen is -183^oC (90K).

– Consequently when liquid air is allowed to warm up, the nitrogen boils off first and the remaining liquid becomes richer in oxygen.

– The top of the fractionating column is a few degrees cooler than the bottom.

– Oxygen, the liquid with the higher boiling point (-183^oC) collects at the bottom as the liquid.

– The gas at the top of the column is nitrogen which ahs a lower boiling point.

– The more easily vapourised nitrogen is taken off.

– This way about 99.57% nitrogen is obtained.

Note:

– The separation of nitrogen and oxygen from air is a proof that air is a mixture and not a compound.

Summary: Fractional distillation of liquid air.

AIR

Step 1: Elimination of dust by Filtration

and electrostatic precipitation

Step 2: CO₂ removal, pass dust free air

through KOH or NaOH

Step 3: Removal of water vapour; through

condensation -25^oC) or conc. H₂SO₄

Recycling Step 4: Compression at approximately 200

atmospheres; cooling and expansion of air

Step 5: Fractional distillation

(c). Laboratory preparation method.

(i). Apparatus.

(ii). Procedure:

– Concentrated solutions of sodium nitrite and ammonium chloride are heated together in a round bottomed flask.

(iii). Observations.

– Colourless gas (nitrogen) is evolved rapidly and is collected over water.

(iv). Equation.

NaNO_2(aq) + NH₄Cl_(aq) ^heat NaCl_(aq) + N_2(g) + 2H₂O_(l).

Note: the resultant gas is less dense than that isolated from air.

Reason:

– It does not contain impurities.

(d). Preparation from ammonia.

(i). Apparatus.

(ii). Procedure:

– Dry ammonia gas is passed over a heated metal oxide e.g. copper metal.

– The metal oxide is reduced to the metal while ammonia gas is itself oxidized to nitrogen and water.

– Water is condensed and collected in a u-tube immersed in ice cubes.

– Nitrogen produced is collected over water.

(iii). Observations and explanations.

Copper (II) oxide:

3CuO_(s) + 2NH_3(g) 3Cu_(s) + N_2(g) + 3H₂O_(l)

(Black) (Brown) (Colourless)

Zinc (II) oxide

3ZnO_(s) + 2NH_3(g) 3Zn_(s) + N_2(g) + 3H₂O_(l)

(Yellow-hot) (Grey) (Colourless)

(White-cold)

Lead (II) oxide

3PbO_(s) + 2NH_3(g) 3Cu_(s) + N_2(g) + 3H₂O_(l)

(Red-hot) (Grey) (Colourless)

(Yellow-cold)

Properties of nitrogen.

(a). Physical properties.

It is a colourless, odourless and tasteless gas; almost completely insoluble in water.
Slightly lighter than air.

(b). Chemical properties.

It is inert (unreactive)

Reason:

– The inert nature of nitrogen is due to the strong covalent bonds between the two nitrogen atoms in the molecule; N₂.

Structurally;

– In air, it neither burns nor supports combustion and acts mainly as a diluent for the oxygen; slowing down the rate of burning.

Chemical test for nitrogen.

– A gas is proved to be nitrogen by elimination: –

It extinguishes a lighted splint and dos not burn; hence it is not oxygen, hydrogen or carbon (II) oxide.
It has neither smell nor colour; and therefore is not chlorine, ammonia, sulphur (IV) oxide or hydrogen chloride.
It does not form a white precipitate in lime water, and so it is not carbon (IV) oxide.
It is neutral to litmus and therefore cannot be carbon (IV) oxide, hydrogen sulphide, ammonia, hydrogen chloride

Reaction with hydrogen.

– Under special conditions (i.e. high pressure, low temperatures and presence of iron catalyst), nitrogen combines with hydrogen to produce ammonia.

Equation:

N_2(g) + 3H_2(g) 2NH_3(g)

– This reaction forms the basis of Haber process used in the manufacture of ammonia.

Reaction with burning magnesium.

(i). Apparatus.

(ii). Procedure:

– A piece of burning magnesium ribbon is introduced into a gas jar full of nitrogen.

(iii). Observations:

– The magnesium ribbon continues to burn and a white solid; magnesium nitride is formed.

Equation:

3Mg_(s) + N_2(g) ^Heat Mg₃N_2(s)

Note:

– When magnesium nitride is treated with water or a solution of sodium hydroxide; the characteristic pungent smell of ammonia can be detected.

Equations:

In water

Mg₃N_2(s) + 6H₂O_(l) 2NH_3(g) + 3Mg(OH)_2(aq)

In sodium hydroxide:

Mg₃N_2(s) + NaOH_(aq)

Reaction with oxygen.

– When nitrogen and oxygen in air are passed through an electric arc small quantities of nitrogen (II) oxide are formed.

Equation:

N_2(g) + O_2(g) 2NO_(g)

Note:

– Nitrogen reacts with oxygen under various conditions to give different types of nitrogen oxides.

Uses of nitrogen

Used in the Haber process in the manufacture of ammonia.
Due to its inert nature, it is mixed with argon to fill electric bulbs (to avoid soot formation).
In liquid state it is used as an inert refrigerant e.g. storage of semen for artificial insemination.
Due to its inert nature, it is used in food preservation particularly for canned products i.e. it prevents combination of oxygen and oil which tends to enhance rusting.
It is used in oil field operation called enhanced oil recovery where it helps to force oil from subterranean deposits.

Oxides of nitrogen.

– The three main oxides of nitrogen are:

Nitrogen (I) oxide, N₂O
Nitrogen (II) oxide, NO
Nitrogen (IV) oxide, NO₂

Nitrogen (I) oxide.

Preparation of nitrogen (I) oxide, N2O

(i). Apparatus.

(ii). Procedure:

– Ammonium nitrate is gently heated in a boiling tube and gas produced collected over warm water.

– Heating is stopped while excess ammonium nitrate still remains.

Reason:

– To avoid chances of an explosion.

(iii). Observations:

– The solid (ammonium nitrate) melts and gives off nitrogen (I) oxide which is collected over warm water.

Reasons:

– Nitrogen (I) oxide is slightly soluble in cold water.

(iv). Equation:

NH₄NO_3(s) ^Heat NO_2(g) + 2H₂O_(l)

Properties:

It is a colourless gas, denser than air, fairly soluble in cold water and neutral to litmus.
It supports combustion by oxidizing elements like sulphur, magnesium and phosphorus under strong heat.

Equations:

N₂O_(g) + Mg_(s) ^Heat MgO_(s) + N_2(g)

2N₂O_(g) + S_(s) ^Heat SO_2(g) + 2N_2(g)

2N₂O_(g) + C_(s) ^Heat CO_2(g) + 2N_2(g)

5N₂O_(g) + 2P_(s) ^Heat P₂O_5(g) + 5N_2(g)

Magnesium decomposes the gas and continues to burn in it.

Equation:

N₂O_(g) + Mg_(s) ^Heat MgO_(s) + N_2(g)

When exposed over red-hot finely divided copper it is reduced to nitrogen.

Equation:

N₂O_(g) + Cu_(s) ^Heat CuO_(s) + N_2(g)

Chemical test.

It relights a glowing splint.

Note:

It can be distinguished from oxygen by the following tests:

It has a sweet sickly smell; oxygen is odourless.
It will not give brown fumes (NO₂) with nitrogen (II) oxide; oxygen does.
It is fairly soluble in cold water; oxygen is insoluble.
It extinguishes feebly burning sulphur; oxygen does not.

Uses of nitrogen (I) oxide.

– It was formerly used in hospitals as an aesthetic for dental surgery but has since been discontinued due to availability of more efficient anaesthetics.

Note:

– Nitrogen (I) oxide is also called laughing gas; because patients regaining consciousness from its effects may laugh hysterically.

Nitrogen (II) oxide, NO.

Preparation:

(i). Apparatus.

(ii). Procedure:

– Action of heat on 50% concentrated nitric acid on copper turnings.

– Not any heat is required.

Equation:

3Cu_(s) + 8HNO_3(aq) 3Cu(NO₃)_2(aq) + 4H₂O_(l) + 2NO_(g)

(iii). Observations:

– An effervescence occurs in the flask; with brown fumes because the nitrogen (II) oxide produced reacts with oxygen of the air in the flask to form a brown gas, nitrogen (IV) oxide.

Equation:

2NO_(g) + O_2(g) 2NO_2(g)

Colourless Colourless Brown

– The brown fumes eventually disappear and the gas collected over water.

– The NO₂ fumes dissolve in the water in the trough, resulting into an acidic solution of nitrous acid.

– The residue in the flask is a green solution of copper (II) nitrate.

– Industrially, the gas is obtained when ammonia reacts with oxygen in the presence of platinum catalyst.

– This is the first stage in the production of nitric acid.

(v). Properties.

It is a colourless, insoluble and neutral to litmus. It is also slightly denser than air.
Readily combines with oxygen in air and forms brown fumes of nitrogen (IV) oxide.
Does not support combustion except in the case of strongly burning magnesium and phosphorus; which continues to burn in it, thereby reducing it i.e. it is an oxidizing agent.

Example:

2Mg_(s) + 2NO_(g) 2MgO_(s) + N_2(g)

4P_(s) + 10NO_(g) 2P₂O_5(s) + 5N_2(g)

When passed over red-hot finely divided copper, it is reduced to nitrogen gas.

Equation:

2Cu_(s) + 2NO_(g) 2CuO_(s) + N_2(g)

Reaction with iron (II) sulphate.

– When iron (II) sulphate solution (freshly prepared) is poured into a gas jar of nitrogen (II) oxide, a dark brown colouration of Nitroso-iron (II) sulphate is obtained.

Equation:

FeSO_4(aq) + NO_(g) FeSO4.NO_(aq)

Green solution Dark brown

(Nitroso-iron (II) sulphate/ nitrogen (II) oxide iron (II) sulphate complex)

It is also a reducing agent.

Equation:

Cl_2(g) + 2NO_(g) 2ClNO_(l)

Chloro nitrogen (II) oxide.

Reaction with hydrogen.

– When electrically sparked with hydrogen, NO is reduced to nitrogen.

Equation:

2H_2(g) + 2NO_(g) 2H₂O_(l) + N_2(g)

Chemical test:

– When exposed to air, nitrogen (II) oxide forms brown fumes of nitrogen (IV) oxide.

Uses of Nitrogen (II) oxide.

Note: –It is not easy to handle owing to its ease of oxidation.

It is an intermediate material in the manufacture of nitric acid

Nitrogen (IV) oxide.

Preparation:

(i). Apparatus.

(ii). Procedure:

– Action of conc. Nitric acid on copper metal.

Equation:

Cu_(s) + 4HNO_3(l) Cu(NO₃)_2(aq) + 2NO_2(g) + 2H₂O_(l)

Note:

– NO₂ is also prepared by the action of heat on nitrates of heavy metals like lead nitrate.

– NO₂ is given off together with oxygen when nitrates of heavy metals are heated.

– It is best prepared by heating lead (II) nitrate in a hard glass test tube.

Lead (II) nitrate is the most suitable because it crystallizes without water of crystallization (like other nitrates) which would interfere with preparation of nitrogen (IV) oxide that is soluble in water.

– The gas evolved passes into a U-tube immersed in an ice-salt mixture.

Apparatus:

Equation:

2Pb(NO₃)_2(s) 2PbO_(s) + 4NO_2(g) + O_2(g)

Observations:

– The heated white lead (II) nitrate crystals decompose and decrepitates (cracking sound) to yield red lead (II) oxide; which turns yellow on cooling.

– A colourless gas, oxygen is liberated, followed immediately by brown fumes of nitrogen (IV) oxide.

– Nitrogen (IV) oxide is condensed as a yellow liquid; dinitrogen tetroxide (N₂O₄); and is collected in the U-tube.

Note:

– At room temperature, nitrogen (IV) oxide consists of nitrogen (IV) oxide and dinitrogen tetroxide in equilibrium with each other.

Equation:
2NO_2(g) N₂O_4(g)

(Nitrogen (IV) oxide) (Dinitrogen tetroxide)

– The oxygen being liberated does not condense because it ahs a low boiling point of -183oC.

Properties of nitrogen (IV) oxide.

Red-brown gas with a pungent chocking smell
It is extremely poisonous.
It is acidic, hence turns moist litmus paper red.
When reacted with water, the brown fumes dissolve showing that it is readily soluble in water.

Equation:

2NO_2(g) + H₂O_(l) HNO_3(aq) + HNO_2(aq)

(Nitric (V) acid) (Nitrous (III) acid)When liquid nitrogen

– Like carbonic (IV) acid, nitrous (III) acid could not be isolated. It is easily oxidized to nitric (V) acid.

Equation:

2NHO_2(aq) + O_2(g) 2NHO_3(aq)

(Nitric (III) acid) (Nitrous (V) acid)

Reaction with magnesium.

– Nitrogen (IV) oxide does not support combustion.

– However burning magnesium continues to burn in it.

Reason:

– The high heat of combustion of burning magnesium decomposes the nitrogen (IV) oxide to nitrogen and oxygen; the oxygen then supports the burning of the magnesium.

Equation:

4MgO_(s) + 2NO_2(g) 4MgO_(s) + 2N_2(g)

Note:

– Generally nitrogen (IV) oxide oxidizes hot metals and non-metals to oxides and itself reduced to nitrogen gas.

Examples:

(i). Copper:

4Cu_(s) + 2NO_2(g) 4CuO_(s) + N_2(g)

(ii). Phosphorus:

8P_(s) + 10NO_2(g) 4P₂O_5(s) + 5N_2(g)

(iii). Sulphur:

2S_(s) + 2NO_2(g) 2SO_2(g) + N_2(g)

Note:

– NO₂ reacts with burning substances because the heat decomposes it to NO₂ and O₂.

Equation:

2NO_2(g) ^Heat 2NO_(g) + O_2(g)

– This is the oxidizing property of nitrogen (IV) oxide.

– The resultant oxygen supports the burning.

Effects of heat:

– On heating, nitrogen (IV) oxide dissociates to nitrogen (II) oxide and oxygen and will support a burning splint.

Equation:

2NO_2(g) ^Heat 2NO_(g) + O_2(g)

– When liquid nitrogen (IV) oxide or dinitrogen tetroxide is warmed, it produces a pale brown vapour.

– This is due to the reversible set of reactions:

Heat Heat

N₂O_4(l) 2NO_2(g) 2NO_(g) + O_2(g)

(Dinitrogen tetroxide) Cool (Nitrogen (IV) oxide) Cool (Nitrogen (II) oxide) (Oxygen)

Pale yellow Brown

Colourless

– Percentage of each in the equilibrium depends on temperature.

– At low temperatures, percentage of N₂O₄ is high and the mixture is pale yellow in colour.

– Percentage of nitrogen (IV) oxide increases with increase in temperature and the colour darkens till at 150^oC when the gas is entirely NO₂ and is almost black.

– Still at higher temperatures, nitrogen (IV) oxide dissociates into colourless gas (NO and O₂).

Reaction with alkalis.

– A solution of aqueous sodium hydroxide is added to a gas jar of nitrogen (IV) oxide and shaken.

Observation:

– The brown fumes disappear.

Explanation:

– Formation of sodium nitrate and sodium nitrite.

Equation:

2NaOH_(aq) + 2NO_2(g) 2NaNO_3(g) + NaNO_2(aq) + H₂O_(l)

Ionically:

2OH^–_(aq) + 2NO_2(g) NO₃^–_(aq) + NO₂^–_(aq) + H₂O_(l)

Conclusion:

Nitrogen (IV) oxide is an acidic gas because it can react with an alkali.

Uses of nitrogen (IV) oxide.

Mainly used in the manufacture of nitric (V) acid.

Summary on comparison between oxides of nitrogen.

	Nitrogen (I) oxide	Nitrogen (II) oxide	Nitrogen (IV) oxide
Colour	– Colourless gas – Sweet sickly smell	– Colourless; turns brown in air; – Odourless	– Red brown gas; – Choking pungent smell;
2. Solubility	– Fairly soluble in cold water; but less soluble in hot water;	– Almost insoluble in water	– Readily soluble in water to form nitric (V) acid and nitrous (III) acid;
3. Action on litmus	– Neutral to litmus	– Neutral to litmus	– Turns moist blue litmus paper red; i.e. acidic.
4. Combustion	– Supports combustion; relights a glowing splint;	– Does not support combustion;	– Does not support combustion.
5. Density	– Denser than air	– Slightly denser than air	– Denser than air;
6. Raw materials and conditions	– Ammonium nitrate and heat;	– Copper and 50% nitric acid;	– Copper metal and concentrated nitric acid;

Action of heat on nitrates.

– All nitrates except ammonium nitrate decompose on heating tom produce oxygen gas as one of the products.

– Nitrates can be categorized into 4 categories based on the products formed when they are heated.

– The ease with which nitrates decompose increases down the electrochemical series of metals.

Nitrates of metals higher in the electrochemical series like sodium and potassium decompose on heating to give the corresponding metal nitrite and oxygen.

Examples:

2NaNO_3(s) ^Heat 2NaNO_2(s) + O_2(g)

2KNO_3(s) ^Heat 2KNO_2(s) + O_2(g)

Nitrates of most other metals (heavy metals) that are average in the electrochemical series decompose on heating to give the metals oxide; nitrogen (IV) oxide and oxygen gas.

Example: action of heat on lead (II) nitrate.

(i). Apparatus:

(ii). Procedure:

– Solid white lead (II) nitrate crystals are strongly heated in a boiling (ignition) tube.

– Products are passed into a U- tube immerse in ice.

– Excess gases are channeled out to a fume chamber.

(iii). Observations:

– The white crystalline solid decrepitates.

– A colourless gas (oxygen) is liberated and immediately followed by a red brown fumes/ gas (nitrogen (IV) oxide).

– A pale yellow liquid (dinitrogen tetroxide) condenses in the U-tube in the ice cubes.

– This is due to condensation of nitrogen (IV) oxide.

– A residue which is red when hot and yellow on cooling remains in the boiling (ignition) tube

Equation:

2Pb(NO₃)_2(s) ^Heat 2PbO_(s) + 4NO_2(g) + O_2(g)

(White crystalline solid) (Red-hot Brown Fumes Colourless gas
yellow-cold)

Further examples:

2Ca(NO₃)_2(s) ^Heat 2CaO_(s) + 4NO_2(g) + O_2(g)

(White solid) (White solid) Brown Fumes Colourless gas

2Mg(NO₃)_2(s) ^Heat 2MgO_(s) + 4NO_2(g) + O_2(g)

(White solid) (White solid) Brown Fumes Colourless gas

2Zn(NO₃)_2(s) ^Heat 2ZnO_(s) + 4NO_2(g) + O_2(g)

(White solid) (Yellow-hot Brown Fumes Colourless gas
White-cold)

2Cu(NO₃)_2(s) ^Heat 2CuO_(s) + 4NO_2(g) + O_2(g)

(Blue solid) (Black solid) Brown Fumes Colourless gas

Note:

– Some nitrates are hydrated and when heated first give out their water of crystallization; and then proceed to as usual on further heating.

Examples:

Ca(NO₃)₂.4H₂O_(s) ^Heat Ca(NO₃)_2(s) + 4H₂O_(g)

(White solid) (White solid) Colourless gas

On further heating;

2Ca(NO₃)_2(s) ^Heat 2CaO_(s) + 4NO_2(g) + O_2(g)

(White solid) (White solid) Brown Fumes Colourless gas

Nitrates of metals lower in the reactivity series e.g. mercury and silver decompose on heating to give the metal, nitrogen (IV) oxide and oxygen.

Example:

Hg(NO₃)_2(s) ^Heat Hg_(s) + 2NO_2(g) + O_2(g)

(White solid) Brown Fumes Colourless gas

2AgNO_3(s) ^Heat 2Ag_(s) + 2NO_2(g) + O_2(g)

(White solid) Brown Fumes Colourless gas

Ammonium nitrate decomposes to nitrogen (I) oxide and water vapour.

Example:

NH₄NO_3(s) ^Heat N₂O_(g) + O_2(g)

Colourless gas Colourless gas
Note:

This reaction is potentially dangerous as ammonium nitrate explodes on strong heating.

Ammonia.

– Is a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen and is the most important hydride of nitrogen.

– It is formed when any ammonium salt is heated with an alkali whether in solid or solution form.

– It is a colourless gas with a pungent smell of urine.

– It is alkaline and turns moist red litmus paper to blue when introduced to it.

Laboratory preparation of ammonia.

(i). Reagents.

Base + ammonium salt NH_3(g) + H₂O_(l)

(ii). Apparatus.

(iii). Procedure.

– Ammonium chloride (NH₄Cl)/ sal-ammoniac is mixed with a little dry slaked lime i.e. Ca(OH)₂ and the mixture thoroughly ground in a mortar.

Reason:

– To increase surface area for the reactions.

– The mixture is then heated in a round-bottomed flask.

Note:

– A round-bottomed flask ensures uniform distribution of heat while heating the reagents.

– The flask should not be thin-walled.

Reason:

The pressure of ammonia gas liberated during heating may easily crack or break it.

– The flask is positioned slanting downwards.

Reason:

– So that as water condenses from the reaction, it does not run back to the hot parts of the flask and crack it.

– The mixture on heating produces ammonia, calcium chloride and water.

Equation:

Ca(OH)_2(s) + NH₄Cl_(s) CaCl_2(aq) + 2NH_3(g) + 2H₂O_(g)

(Slaked lime)

(iv). Drying:

– Ammonia is dried by passing it through a tower or U-tube filled with quicklime (calcium oxide) or pellets of caustic potash but not caustic soda which is deliquescent.

Note:

Ammonia cannot be dried with the usual drying agents; concentrated sulphuric acid and calcium chloride as it reacts with them.

With concentrated sulphuric acid.

2NH_3(g) + H₂SO_4(l) (NH₄)₂SO_4(aq)

With fused calcium chloride:

CaCl_2(aq) + 4NH_3(g) CaCl₂.4NH_3(s)

– i.e. ammonia reacts forming complex ammonium salt.

(v). Collection:

– Dry ammonia gas is collected by upward delivery.

Reasons:

– It is lighter than air.

– It is soluble in water.

Other methods of preparing ammonia.

(b). Ammonia from caustic soda (sodium hydroxide) or caustic potash (potassium hydroxide)

Note:

– The slaked lime is replaced by either of the above solutions.

– Thus the solid reactant is ammonium chloride and the liquid reactant is potassium hydroxide.

(i). Apparatus:

(ii). Procedure:

– The flask is not slanted. It is vertical and heated on a tripod stand and wire gauze.

Reason:

– No need of slanting since water produced is in liquid form and not gaseous. Thus there is no possibility of condensation of water on hotter parts.

Equations:

(i). With caustic soda:

NaOH_(aq) + NH₄Cl_(s) NaCl_(aq) + H₂O_(l) + NH_3(g)

Ionically;

Na⁺_(aq) + OH^–_(aq) + NH₄Cl_(s) Na⁺_(aq) + Cl^–_(aq) + H₂O_(l) + NH_3(g)

Hence; NH₄Cl_(s) + OH^–_(aq) Cl^–_(aq) + H₂O_(l) + NH_3(g)

(ii). With caustic potash:

KOH_(aq) + NH₄Cl_(s) KCl_(aq) + H₂O_(l) + NH_3(g)

Ionically;

K⁺_(aq) + OH^–_(aq) + NH₄Cl_(s) K⁺_(aq) + Cl^–_(aq) + H₂O_(l) + NH_3(g)

Hence; NH₄Cl_(s) + OH^–_(aq) Cl^–_(aq) + H₂O_(l) + NH_3(g)

Note:

Ammonium sulphate could be used in place of ammonium chloride in either case.

Equations:

(i). With caustic soda:

2NaOH_(aq) + (NH₄)₂SO_4(s) Na₂SO_4(aq) + 2H₂O_(l) + 2NH_3(g)

Ionically;

2Na⁺_(aq) + 2OH^–_(aq) + (NH₄)₂SO_4(s) 2Na⁺_(aq) + SO₄^2-_(aq) + H₂O_(l) + NH_3(g)

Hence; (NH₄)₂SO_4(s) + 2OH^–_(aq) SO₄^2-_(aq) + 2H₂O_(l) + 2NH_3(g)

(ii). With caustic potash:

2KOH_(aq) + (NH₄)₂SO_4(s) K₂SO_4(aq) + 2H₂O_(l) + 2NH_3(g)

Ionically;

2K⁺_(aq) + 2OH^–_(aq) + (NH₄)₂SO_4(s) 2K⁺_(aq) + SO₄^2-_(aq) + H₂O_(l) + NH_3(g)

Hence; (NH₄)₂SO_4(s) + 2OH^–_(aq) SO₄^2-_(aq) + 2H₂O_(l) + 2NH_3(g)

(iii). With calcium hydroxide:

Ca(OH)_2(aq) + (NH₄)₂SO_4(s) CaSO_4(aq) + 2H₂O_(l) + 2NH_3(g)

Ionically;

Ca²⁺_(aq) + 2OH^–_(aq) + (NH₄)₂SO_4(s) Ca²⁺_(aq) + SO₄^2-_(aq) + H₂O_(l) + NH_3(g)

Hence; (NH₄)₂SO_4(s) + 2OH^–_(aq) SO₄^2-_(aq) + 2H₂O_(l) + 2NH_3(g)

Note:

Reaction with calcium hydroxide however stops prematurely, almost as soon as the reaction starts.

Reason;

– Formation of insoluble calcium sulphate which coats the ammonium sulphate preventing further reaction.

Preparation of ammonium solution.

(i). Apparatus.

(ii). Procedure:

– The apparatus is altered as above.

– The drying tower is removed and the gas produced is directly passed into water by an inverted funnel.

Reasons for the inverted broad funnel.

– It increases the surface area for the dissolution of thereby preventing water from sucking back into the hot flask and hence prevents chances of an explosion.

(iii). Equation.

NH_3(g) + H₂O_(l) NH₄OH_(aq)

Note:

– The solution cannot be prepared by leading the gas directly to water by the delivery tube.

Reason:

– Ammonia gas is very soluble in water and so water would rush up the delivery tube and into the hot flask causing it to crack.

– The rim of the inverted funnel is just below the water surface.

Tests for ammonia.

It is a colourless gas with a pungent smell.
It is the only common gas that is alkaline as it turns moist red litmus paper blue.
When ammonia is brought into contact with hydrogen chloride gas, dense white fumes of ammonium chloride are formed.

Equation:

NH_3(g) + HCl_(g) NH₄Cl_(s)

Fountain experiment.

(i). Diagram:

(ii). Procedure:

– Dry ammonia is collected in a round-bottomed flask and set up as above.

– The clip is open and solution let to rise up the tube.

– The clip is closed when the solution reaches the top of the tube after which it is again opened fro a while.

(iii). Observations and explanations.

– When a drop of water gets to the jet, it dissolves so much of the ammonia gas that a partial vacuum is created inside the flask.

– As the ammonia in the flask dissolves, the pressure in the flask is greatly reduced.

– The atmospheric pressure on the water surface in the beaker forces water into the flask vigorously.

– The drawn-out jet of the tube causes a fountain to be produced.

– The fountain appears blue due to the alkaline nature of ammonia.

(iv). Caution:

– Ammonia is highly soluble in water forming an alkaline solution of ammonium hydroxide.

Note:

1 volume of water dissolves about 750 volumes of ammonia at room temperature.

Properties and reactions of ammonia.

Smell: has a characteristic pungent smell.
Solubility: it is highly soluble in water. The dissolved ammonia molecule reacts partially with water to form ammonium ions (NH₄⁺) and hydroxyl ions (OH^–)

Equation:

NH_3(g) + H₂O_(l) NH4⁺_(aq) + OH^–_(aq)

– Formation of hydroxyl ions means that the aqueous solution of ammonia is (weakly) alkaline and turns universal indicator purple.

Reaction with acids.

– Sulphuric acid and concentrated ammonia solution are put in a dish and heated slowly.

– The mixture is evaporated to dryness.

Observations:

– A white solid is formed.

Equation:

2NH₄OH_(aq) + H₂SO_4(aq) (NH₄)₂SO_4(aq) + H₂O_(l)

Ionically:

2NH₄⁺_(aq) + 2OH^–_(aq) + 2H⁺_(aq) + SO₄^2-_(aq) 2NH₄⁺_(aq) + SO₄^2-_(aq) + 2H⁺_(aq) + 2OH^–_(aq) + H₂O_(l).

Then;

2H⁺_(aq) + 2OH^–_(aq) 2H₂O_(l)

– To some of the resultant white solid, a little NaOH_(aq) was added and the mixture warmed.

– The gas evolved was tested fro ammonia.

Observation:

– The resultant gas tested positive for ammonia.

Equation:

(NH₄)₂SO_4(s) + 2NaOH_(aq) Na₂SO_4(aq) + 2NH_3(g) + 2H₂O_(l).

Explanations:

– Evolution of ammonia shows that the white solid formed is an ammonium salt.

– The ammonia reacts with acids to from ammonium salt and water only.

Further examples:
HCl_(aq)+ NH₄OH_(aq) NH₄Cl_(aq) + H₂O_(l)

HNO_3(aq) + NH₄OH_(aq) NH₄NO_3(aq)+ H₂O_(l)

Ionic equation:

NH_3(g) + H⁺_(aq) NH₄⁺_(aq)

Reaction of ammonia with oxygen.

– Ammonia extinguishes a lighted taper because it dos not support burning.

– It is non-combustible.

– However it burns in air enriched with oxygen with a green-yellow flame.

Experiment: Burning ammonia in oxygen.

(i). Apparatus.

(ii). Procedure:

– Dry oxygen is passed in the U-tube for a while to drive out air.

– Dry ammonia gas is then passed into the tube.

– A lighted splint is then passed into the tube.

(iii). Observations:

– A colourless gas is liberated.

– Droplets of a colourless liquid collect on cooler parts of the tube.

(iv). Explanations:

– The conditions for the reactions are:

Dry ammonia and oxygen gas i.e. the gases must be dry.
All air must be driven out of the tube.

– Ammonia burns continuously in oxygen (air enriched with oxygen) forming nitrogen and water vapour i.e. ammonia is oxidized as hydrogen is removed from it leaving nitrogen.

Equation:

4NH_3(g) + 3O_2(g) 2N_2(g) + 6H₂O_(g)

Sample question:

Suggest the role of glass wool in the tube.

Solution:

– To slow down the escape of oxygen in the combustion tube, thus providing more time for combustion of ammonia.

Ammonia as a reducing agent.

– It reduces oxides of metals below iron in the reactivity series.

Experiment: reaction between ammonia and copper (II) oxide.

(i). Apparatus.

Ice cubes

(ii). Procedure:

– Copper (II) oxide is heated strongly and dry ammonia is passed over it.

– The products are then passed through a U-tube immersed in cold water (ice cubes).

(iii). Observations.

– The copper (II) oxide glows as the reaction is exothermic.

– A colourless liquid collects in the U-tube.

– A colourless gas is collected over water.

– The black copper (II) oxide changes to brown copper metal.

(iv). Explanations.

– Ammonia gas reduces copper (II) oxide to copper and is itself oxidized to nitrogen and water.

Equation:

3CuO_(s) + 2NH_3(g) 3Cu_(s) + 3H₂O_(l) + N_2(g)

Black red-brown (colourless)

– The water produced condenses in the U-tube immersed in cold (ice) water.

– The resultant nitrogen is collected by downward displacement of water.

– The nitrogen gas collected is ascertained indirectly as follows:

A lighted splint is extinguished and the gas does not burn; thus it is not oxygen, hydrogen, or carbon (II) oxide.
It has neither smell nor colour; it is not ammonia, chlorine, sulphur (IV) oxide or nitrogen (IV) oxide.
It is not carbon (II) oxide because it does not turn lime water into a white precipitate.

Note:

– This experiment proves that ammonia contains nitrogen.

Reaction with chlorine.

(i). Procedure:

– Ammonia gas is passed into a bell jar containing chlorine.

(ii). Apparatus:

(iii). Observations:

– The ammonia catches fire and burns for a while at the end of the tube.

– The flame then goes out and the jar then gets filled with dense white fumes of ammonium chloride.

Equations:

2NH_3(g) + 3Cl_2(g) 6HCl_(g) + N_2(g)

Then;

6HCl_(g) + 6NH_3(g) 6NH₄Cl_(s)

Overall equation:

8NH_3(g)+ 3Cl_2(g) 6NH₄Cl_(s) + N_2(g)

Ammonia solution as an alkali.

– Solution of ammonia in water contains hydroxyl ions.

Equation:

NH_3(g) + H₂O_(l) NH₄⁺_(aq) + OH^–_(aq)

– Thus it has many properties of a typical alkali.

– Ammonia salts are similar to metallic salts.

– The group (NH₄⁺) precipitates in the reaction as a whole without splitting in any way.

– It exhibits unit valency in its compounds and therefore called a basic radical.

Note:

– It cannot exist freely as ammonia gas (NH₃) which is a compound.

– Like other alkalis, ammonia solution precipitates insoluble metallic hydroxides by double decomposition when mixed with solution of salts of the metals.

Reaction with air in the presence of platinum wire.

(i). Apparatus:

(ii). Procedure:

– Concentrated ammonia solution is put in a conical flask.

– The platinum (or even copper) wire is heated until white-hot.

– Oxygen gas or air is then passed through the ammonia solution.

– The red-hot platinum (copper) wire is then put into the flask containing the concentrated ammonia.

(iii). Observations:

– The hot platinum wire glows.

– Red-brown fumes are evolved.

(iv). Explanations:

– The hot platinum coil glows when it comes into contact with the ammonia fumes, which come from the concentrated ammonia solution.

– Reaction between ammonia and oxygen takes place on the surface of the platinum wire that acts a s a catalyst.

– A lot of heat is produced in the reaction that enables the platinum coil to continue glowing.

– Ammonia is oxidized to nitrogen (IV) oxide.

Equation:

4NH_3(g) + 5O_2(g)^{Platinum catalyst} 4NO_(g) + 6H₂O_(l)

– Red-brown fumes of nitrogen (IV) oxide are produced due to further oxidation of the nitrogen (II) oxide to from nitrogen (IV) oxide.

Equation:

2NO_(g) + O_2(g) 2NO_2(g)

Action of aqueous ammonia on solution of metallic salts

(i). Procedure:

– To about 2cm³ of solutions containing ions of calcium, magnesium, aluminium, zinc, iron, lead, copper etc in separate test tubes; aqueous ammonia is added dropwise till in excess.

(ii). Observations:

The various metal ions reacted as summarized in the table below.

Metal ions in solution	Observations on addition of ammonia
Metal ions in solution	Few drops of ammonia	Excess drops of ammonia
Ca²⁺	White precipitate	White precipitate persists;
Mg²⁺	White precipitate	Precipitate persists;
Al³⁺	White precipitate	Precipitate persists;
Zn²⁺	White precipitate	Precipitate dissolves;
Fe²⁺	Pale green precipitate	Precipitate persists; slowly turns red-brown on exposure to air;
Fe³⁺	Red-brown precipitate	Precipitate persists;
Pb²⁺	White precipitate	Precipitate persists;
Cu²⁺	Pale blue precipitate	Precipitate dissolves forming a deep blue solution;

(iii). Explanations:

– Most metal ions in solution react with ammonia solution to form insoluble metal hydroxides.

– In excess ammonia, some of the so formed hydroxides dissolve forming complex ions.

(iv). Equations:

Mg²⁺_(aq) from MgCl₂;

MgCl_2(aq) + 2NH₄OH_(aq) Mg(OH)_2(s) + 2NH₄Cl_(aq)

Ionically:

Mg²⁺_(aq) + 2OH^–_(aq) Mg(OH)_2(s)

(White ppt)

Fe²⁺ from Fe(NO₃)₂;

Fe(NO₃)_2(aq) + 2NH₄OH_(aq) Fe(OH)_2(s) + 2NH₄NO_3(aq)

Ionically:

Fe²⁺_(aq) + 2OH^–_(aq) Fe(OH)_2(s)

(Pale green ppt)

Fe³⁺ from FeCl₃;

Ionically:

Fe³⁺_(aq) + 3OH^–_(aq) Fe(OH)_3(s)

(Red brown ppt)

Note:

Zn²⁺_(aq)and Cu²⁺_(aq) dissolve in excess ammonia solution forming complex ions.

Zinc ions and ammonia solution.

With little ammonia:

ZnCl_2(aq) + 2NH₄OH_(aq) Zn(OH)_2(s) + 2NH₄Cl_(aq)

Ionically:

Zn²⁺_(aq) + 2OH^–_(aq) Zn(OH)_2(s)

(White ppt.)

In excess ammonia:

– The white precipitate of Zn(OH)_2(s) dissolves in excess ammonia to form a colourless solution; proof that solution has Zn²⁺ions;

– The colourless solution is a complex salt of tetra-amine zinc (II) ions.

Equation:

Zn(OH)_2(s) + 4NH_3(aq) [Zn(NH₃)₄]²⁺_(aq) + 2OH^–_(aq)

(White ppt.) (Colourless solution-tetra amine zinc (II) ions)

Copper (II) ions.

With little ammonia:

– A pale blue precipitate is formed.

Ionically:

Cu²⁺_(aq) + 2OH^–_(aq) Cu(OH)_2(s)

(Pale blue ppt.)

In excess ammonia:

– The pale blue precipitate of Cu(OH)_2(s) dissolves in excess ammonia to form a deep blue solution; proof that solution has Cu²⁺ions;

– The deep blue solution is a complex salt of tetra-amine copper (II) ions.

Equation:

Cu(OH)_2(s) + 4NH_3(aq) [Cu(NH₃)₄]²⁺_(aq) + 2OH^–_(aq)

(Pale blue ppt.) (Deep blue solution-tetra amine copper (II) ions)

Uses of ammonia gas and its solution:

Ammonia gas is used in the manufacture of nitric acid and nylon.
Ammonia gas is important in the preparation of ammonium salts used as fertilizers.
It liquefies fairly easily (B.P is -33^oC) and the liquid is used as a refrigerant in large cold storages and ice cream factories.
Liquid ammonia is injected directly into the soil as a high nitrogen content fertilizer.
Ammonia solution is used in laundry work as a water softener and a cleansing agent (stain remover)
Ammonia is used in the manufacture of sodium carbonate in the Solvay process.
Ammonia is used in smelling salts. It has a slightly stimulating effect on the action of the heart and so may prevent fainting

Qualitative analysis for cations using sodium hydroxide solution

(i). Procedure:

– To about 2cm³ of solutions containing ions of calcium, magnesium, aluminium, zinc, iron, lead, copper etc in separate test tubes; aqueous sodium hydroxide is added dropwise till in excess.

(ii). Observations:

The various metal ions reacted as summarized in the table below.

Metal ions in solution	Observations on addition of ammonia
Metal ions in solution	Few drops of ammonia	Excess drops of ammonia
Ca²⁺	White precipitate	White precipitate persists
Mg²⁺	White precipitate	Precipitate persists;
Al³⁺	White precipitate	Precipitate dissolves;
Zn²⁺	White precipitate	Precipitate dissolves;
Fe²⁺	Pale green precipitate	Precipitate persists; slowly turns red-brown on exposure to air;
Fe³⁺	Red-brown precipitate	Precipitate persists;
Pb²⁺	White precipitate	Precipitate dissolves;
Cu²⁺	Pale blue precipitate	Precipitate dissolves forming a deep blue solution;

(iii). Explanations:

– Most metal ions in solution react with sodium hydroxide solution to form insoluble metal hydroxides.

– In excess sodium hydroxide, some of the so formed hydroxides (hydroxides of Zn, Al, Pb and Cu) dissolve forming complex ions.

(iv). Equations:

Ca²⁺_(aq) + 2OH^–_(aq) Ca(OH)_2(s)

(White ppt)

Mg²⁺_(aq) + 2OH^–_(aq) Mg(OH)_2(s)

(White ppt)

Al³⁺_(aq) + 3OH^–_(aq) Al(OH)_3(s)

(White ppt)

Zn²⁺_(aq) + 2OH^–_(aq) Zn(OH)_2(s)

(White ppt)

Pb²⁺_(aq) + 2OH^–_(aq) Pb(OH)_2(s)

(White ppt)

Cu²⁺_(aq) + 2OH^–_(aq) Cu(OH)_2(s)

(Pale blue ppt)

Fe²⁺_(aq) + 2OH^–_(aq) Fe(OH)_2(s)

(Pale green ppt)

Fe³⁺_(aq) + 3OH^–_(aq) Fe(OH)_3(s)

(Red brown ppt)

Note:

Hydroxides of Zn²⁺_(aq); Pb²⁺_(aq); and Al³⁺_(aq) dissolve in excess ammonia solution forming complex ions.

Zinc ions and sodium hydroxide solution.

With little sodium hydroxide:

Zn²⁺_(aq) + 2OH^–_(aq) Zn(OH)_2(s)

(White ppt.)

In excess sodium hydroxide:

– The white precipitate of Zn(OH)_2(s) dissolves in excess sodium hydroxide to form a colourless solution;

– The colourless solution is a complex salt of tetra-hydroxo zinc (II) ions (zincate ion).

Equation:

Zn(OH)_2(s) + 2OH^–_(aq) [Zn(OH)₄]^2-_(aq)

(White ppt.) (Colourless solution-tetra hydroxo- zinc (II) ion/ zincate ion)

Aluminium ions and sodium hydroxide solution.

With little sodium hydroxide:

Al³⁺_(aq) + 3OH^–_(aq) Al(OH)_3(s)

(White ppt.)

In excess sodium hydroxide:

– The white precipitate of Al(OH)_3(s) dissolves in excess sodium hydroxide to form a colourless solution;

– The colourless solution is a complex salt of tetra-hydroxo aluminium (III) ions (aluminate ion).

Equation:

Al(OH)_3(s) + OH^–_(aq) [Al(OH)₄]^–_(aq)

(White ppt.) (Colourless solution-tetra hydroxo- aluminium (III) ion/aluminate ion

Lead (II) ions and sodium hydroxide solution.

With little sodium hydroxide:

Pb²⁺_(aq) + 2OH^–_(aq) Pb(OH)_2(s)

(White ppt.)

In excess sodium hydroxide:

– The white precipitate of Pb(OH)_2(s) dissolves in excess sodium hydroxide to form a colourless solution;

– The colourless solution is a complex salt of tetra-hydroxo lead (II) ions (plumbate ions).

Equation:

Zn(OH)_2(s) + 2OH^–_(aq) [Zn(OH)₄]^2-_(aq)

(White ppt.) (Colourless solution-tetra hydroxo- lead (II) ion/ plumbate ion)

Summary and useful information on qualitative analysis:

Colours of substances in solids and solutions in water.

COLOUR		IDENTITY
SOLID	AQUESOUS SOLUTION (IF SOLUBLE)	IDENTITY
1. White	Colourless	Compound of K⁺; Na⁺, Ca²⁺; Mg²⁺; Al³⁺; Zn²⁺; Pb²⁺; NH₄⁺
2. Yellow	Insoluble	Zinc oxide, ZnO (turns white on cooling); Lead oxide, PbO (remains yellow on cooling, red when hot)
2. Yellow	Yellow	Potassium or sodium chromate;
3. Blue	Blue	Copper (II) compound, Cu²⁺
4. Pale green Green	Pale green (almost colourless) Green	Iron (II) compounds,Fe²⁺ Nickel (II) compound, Ni²⁺; Chromium (II) compounds, Cr³⁺; (Sometimes copper (II) compound, Cu²⁺)
5. Brown	Brown (sometimes yellow) Insoluble	Iron (III) compounds, Fe³⁺; Lead (IV) oxide, PbO₂
6. Pink	Pink (almost colourless) Insoluble	Manganese (II) compounds, Mn²⁺; Copper metal as element (sometimes brown but will turn black on heating in air)
7. Orange	Insoluble	Red lead, Pb₃O₄ (could also be mercury (II) oxide, HgO)
8. Black	Purple Brown Insoluble	Manganate (VII) ions (MnO^–) as in KMnO₄; Iodine (element)-purple vapour Manganese (IV) oxide, MnO₂ Copper (II) oxide, CuO Carbon powder (element) Various metal powders (elements)

Reactions of cations with common laboratory reagents and solubilities of some salts in water

CATION	SOLUBLE COMPOUNDS (IN WATER)	INSUOLUBLE COMPOUNDS (IN WATER)	REACTION WITH AQUEOUS SODIUM HYDROXIDE	REACTION WITH AQUEOUS AMMONIA SOLUTION
Na⁺	All	None	No reaction	No reaction
K⁺	All	None	No reaction	No reaction
Ca²⁺	Cl^–; NO₃^–;	CO₃^2-; O^2-; SO₄^2-; OH^–;	White precipitate insoluble in excess	White precipitate insoluble in excess, on standing;
Al³⁺	Cl^–; NO₃^–; SO₄^2-	O^2-; OH^–;	White precipitate soluble in excess	White precipitate insoluble in excess
Pb²⁺	NO₃^–; ethanoate;	All others;	White precipitate soluble in excess	White precipitate insoluble in excess
Zn²⁺	Cl^–; NO₃^–; SO₄^2-	CO₃^2-; O^2-; SO₄^2-; OH^–;	White precipitate soluble in excess	White precipitate soluble in excess
Fe²⁺	Cl^–; NO₃^–; SO₄^2-	CO₃^2-; O^2-; OH^–;	(Dark) pale green precipitate insoluble in excess	(Dark) pale green precipitate insoluble in excess
Fe³⁺	Cl^–; NO₃^–; SO₄^2-	CO₃^2-; O^2-; OH^–;	(Red) brown precipitate insoluble in excess	(Red) brown precipitate insoluble in excess
Cu²⁺	Cl^–; NO₃^–; SO₄^2-	CO₃^2-; O^2-; OH^–;	Pale blue precipitate insoluble in excess	Pale blue precipitate soluble in excess forming a deep blue solution
NH₄⁺	All	None;	Ammonias gas on warming	Not applicable.

Qualitative analysis for common anions.

	SO₄^2-_(aq)	Cl^–_(aq)	NO₃^–_(aq)	CO₃^2-_(aq)
TEST	Add Ba²⁺_(aq) ions from Ba(NO₃)_2(aq); acidify with dilute HNO_3(aq)	Add Ag⁺_(aq) from AgNO_3(aq). Acidify with dilute HNO₃ Alternatively; Add Pb²⁺ from Pb(NO₃)₂ and warm	Add FeSO_4(aq); Tilt the tube and carefully add 1-2 cm³ of concentrated H₂SO_4(aq)	Add dilute HNO_3(aq); bubble gas through lime water;
OBSERVATION	The formation of a white precipitate shows presence of SO₄^2- ion;	The formation of a white precipitate shows presence of Cl^– ion; Formation of a white precipitate that dissolves on warming shown presence of Cl^–_(aq) ions	The formation of a brown ring shows the presence of NO₃^– ions	Evolution of a colourless gas that forma a white precipitate with lime water, turns moist blue litmus paper red; and extinguishes a glowing splint shows presence of CO₃^2- ions
EXPLANATION	Only BaSO₄ and BaCO₃ can be formed as white precipitates. BaCO₃ is soluble in dilute acids and so BaSO₄ will remain on adding dilute nitric acid	Only AgCl and AgCO₃ can be formed as white precipitates. AgCO₃ is soluble in dilute acids but AgCl is not; – PbCl₂ is the only white precipitate that dissolves on warming	Concentrated H₂SO₄ forms nitrogen (II) oxide with NO₃^–_(aq) and this forms brown ring complex (FeSO₄.NO) with FeSO₄;	All CO₃^2- or HCO₃^– will liberate carbon (IV) oxide with dilute acids

Checklist:

Why is it not possible to use dilute sulphuric acid in the test for SO₄^2- ions;
Why is it not possible to use dilute hydrochloric acid in the test for chloride ions?
Why is it best to use dilute nitric acid instead of the other two mineral acids in the test for CO₃^2-ions?
How would you distinguish two white solids, Na₂CO₃ and NaHCO₃?

What to look for when a substance is heated.

1. Sublimation	White solids on cool, parts of a test tube indicates NH₄⁺ compounds; Purple vapour condensing to black solid indicates iodine crystals;
2. Water vapour (condensed)	Colourless droplets on cool parts of the test tube indicate water of crystallization or HCO₃^– (see below)
3. Carbon (IV) oxide	CO₃^2- of Zn²⁺; Pb²⁺; Fe²⁺; Fe³⁺; Cu²⁺;
4. Carbon (IV) oxide and water vapour (condensed)	HCO₃^–
5. Nitrogen (IV) oxide	NO₃^–of Cu²⁺; Al³⁺; Zn²⁺; Pb²⁺; Fe²⁺; Fe³⁺
6. Oxygen	NO₃^– or BaO₂; MnO₂; PbO₂;

Industrial manufacture of ammonia-The Haber process.

– Most of the worlds supply of ammonia is from the synthesis of Nitrogen and hydrogen in the Haber process.

(i). Raw materials

Nitrogen

– Usually obtained from liquid air by fractional distillation

Hydrogen

– Obtained from water gas in the Bosch process.

– Also from crude oil (cracking)

(ii). General equation

N_2(g) + 3 H_2(g) 2NH_3(g) + heat;

Note:

– Nitrogen and hydrogen combine in the ratio 1:3 respectively to form two volumes of ammonia gas plus heat.

-The reaction is exothermic releasing heat to the surrounding.

(iii). Conditions

High pressures

– The process is favoured by high pressures and thus a pressure of approximately 200 to 300 atmospheres is used.

Reason:

– The volume of gaseous reactants from equation is higher than volume of gaseous products. Thus increased pressure shifts the equilibrium to the right; favoring the production of more ammonia.

Note:

Such high pressures are however uneconomical.

Low temperatures

– Low temperatures favour production of ammonia;

Reason:

– The reaction is exothermic (releases heat to the surrounding) hence lower temperature will favour the forward reaction (shift the equilibrium to the right), producing more ammonia.

Catalyst

– The low temperatures make the reaction slow and therefore a catalyst is used to increase the rate of reaction

– The catalyst used is finely divided iron; impregnated with Aluminium oxide (Al₂O₃)

(iv). The chemical processes

Step 1: Purification

-The raw materials, nitrogen and hydrogen are passed through a purification chamber in which impurities are removed.

-The main impurities are CO₂, water vapour, dust particles, SO₂, CO₂ and O₂;

Reason:

The impurities would poison the catalyst

Step 2: Compression

– The purified Nitrogen and Hydrogen gases are compressed in a compressor at 500 atmospheres.

Reasons:

To increase chances of molecules reacting;
To increase rate of collision of the reacting particles.
To increase pressure (attain desired pressures); and hence increase concentration of reacting particles.

Step 3: Heat exchanger reactions

– Upon compression the gaseous mixture, nitrogen and hydrogen are channeled into a heat exchanger; which heats them increasing their temperature.

– This enables the reactants (hydrogen and nitrogen) to attain the optimum temperatures for the succeeding reactions (in the catalytic chamber)

– From the heat exchanger the gases go to the catalyst chamber.

Step 4: Catalytic chamber.

– The gases then combine in the ratio of 1:3 (N₂:H₂respectively), to form ammonia.

– This reaction occurs in presence of a catalyst; which speeds up the rate of ammonia formation;

– The catalyst is finely divided iron impregnated with aluminium oxide (Al₂O₃ increases the catalytic activity of iron).

Equation in catalytic chamber

N_2(g) + 3H_2(g) 2NH_3(g) + Heat (-92kjmol^–)

– Only about 6-10% of the gases combine.

– Due to the high heat evolution involved, the products are again taken back to the heat exchanger; to cool the gases coming from the catalytic chamber.

Step 5: Heat exchanger

– The gases from the catalytic chamber enter the heat exchanger a second time.

Reason:

– To cool the gases coming from the catalytic chamber, thus reduce cost of condensation.

-The gaseous mixture; ammonia and uncombined nitrogen and hydrogen are the passed through a condenser.

Step 6: The condenser reactions (cooling chamber)

– The pressure and the low temperatures in this chamber liquefy ammonia, which is then drawn off.

– The uncombined (unreacted) gases are recirculated back to the compressor, from where they repeat the entire process.

Summary: flow chart of Haber process.

Fractional distillation of air

Nitrogen

Hydrogen

Crude oil cracking; or water gas in Bosch process

Purifier: removal of duct particles; CO₂; H₂O vapour etc

Unreacted gases

(recycling)

6-10% ammonia + air;

LIQUID AMMONIA

Citing a Haber process plant

– When choosing a site for this industrial plant, the following factors are considered:

Availability of raw materials (natural gas and crude oil)
Presence of cheap sources of energy.
Availability of transport and marketing.
Availability of appropriate technology and labour force.

Ammonium salts as fertilizers

– Ammonium salts are prepared by the reaction between ammonia and the appropriate acid in dilute solution followed by evaporation and crystallization

(a). Ammonium sulphate

– Is prepared by absorbing ammonia in sulphuric acid.

Equation:

2NH_3(g) + H₂SO_4(aq) (NH₄)₂SO_4(aq)

Note: It is a cheap fertilizer.

(b). Ammonium nitrate

– Is prepared by neutralization nitric acid by ammonia.

Equation:

NH_3(g) + HNO_3(aq) NH₄NO_3(aq)

– As there is some danger of exploding during storage, ammonium nitrate is mixed with finely powdered limestone (CaCO₃).

-The mixture, sold as nitro-chalk is much safer.

(c). Ammonium phosphate

– It is particularly useful as it supplies both nitrogen and phosphorus to the soil.

– It is prepared by neutralizing othophosphoric acid by ammonia

Equation:

3NH_3(g) + H₃PO_4(aq) (NH₄)₃ PO_4(aq)

(d) Urea CO (NH₂)₂

– Is made from ammonia and carbon (IV) oxide

– Its nitrogen content by mass is very high; nearly 47%

Equation:

NH_3(g) +CO_2(g) CO (NH₂)_2(aq)+ H₂O_(l)

Nitric (V) acid

– Is a monobasic acid (has only one replaceable Hydrogen atom); and has been known as strong water (aqua forty).

– It is a compound of hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen.

Laboratory preparation of nitric (V) acid

(i). Apparatus

(ii). Reagents

– Nitric acid is prepared in the laboratory by action of concentrated sulphuric acid on solid nitrates e.g. potassium nitrate (KNO₃) and sodium nitrate (NaNO₃)

(iii). Procedure

– 30-40 grams of small crystal of KNO₃ are put in a retort flask.

– Concentrated sulphuric acid is added just enough to cover the nitrate; and then heated (warmed) gently.

– The apparatus is all glass.

Reason:

– Nitric (V) acid would attack rubber connections.

– The neck of the retort flask is inserted into a flask that is kept cool continually under running water; this is where nitric acid is collected.

Note:

The cold water running over the collection flask is meant to cool (condense) the hot fumes of nitric (V) acid.

(iv). Observations and explanations

– Fumes of nitric are observed in the retort;

Equation

KNO_3(g) + H₂SO_4(aq) KHSO_4(aq) +HNO_3(g)

– If Lead (II) nitrate was used;

Pb(NO₃)_2(s) + H₂SO_4(aq) PbSO_4(s) + 2HNO_3(g)

Note: with lead (II) nitrate the reaction soon stops because the insoluble lead (II) sulphate coats the surface of the nitrate preventing further reaction; yield of nitric (V) acid is thus lower;

-These fumes of nitric acid appear brown.

Reason:

– Due to the presence of nitrogen (iv) oxide gas formed by thermal decomposition of nitric acid.

Equation:

4HNO_3(aq) 4NO_2(g) + O_2(g) + 2H₂O_(g)

– Pure nitric (V) acid is colourless but may appear yellow (brown) due to the presence of Nitrogen (IV) oxide.

– The brown colour can be removed by blowing air through the acid.

– Fuming nitric acid boils at 83^oC and is 99% pure; while concentrated nitric acid is only 70% acid and 30% water.

Note: Nitric acid is usually stored in dark bottles.

Reason:

– To avoid its decomposition by light to nitrogen (IV) oxide, oxygen and water.

– The reaction in the retort flask is a typical displacement reaction; in which the more volatile nitric (V) acid is displaced from nitrates by the less volatile sulphuric acid.

– The nitric acid distills over because it is more volatile than sulphuric acid.

Properties of concentrated nitric acid

– Nitric (V) acid readily gives oxygen and therefore is called an oxidizer.

– The acid is usually reduced to nitrogen (IV) oxide and water.

Effects of heat on concentrated nitric acid

(i) Apparatus

(ii) Observations

– Brown fumes are seen in the hard glass tube.

– Colourless gas is collected over water.

(ii). Explanations

– Sand soaked in concentrated nitric acid produces nitric solid vapour on heating.

– The hot glass wool catalyzes the decomposition of nitric acid to nitrogen (IV) oxide (brown fumes), water vapour and oxygen.

Equation

4HNO_3(l) 4NO_2(g) + 2H₂O_(l) + O_2(g)

(Brown fumes)

– The so formed nitrogen (IV) oxide dissolves in water forming both nitric and nitrous acids.

Equation:

2NO_2(g) + H₂O_(l) HNO_2(aq) + HNO_3(aq)

– The oxygen gas is collected over water; and with the solution becoming acidic.

Reaction with saw dust

– Saw dust contains compounds of carbon Hydrogen and oxygen.

Procedure:

– Some saw dust is heated in an evaporating dish and some few drops of concentrated nitric (V) acid on it (this is done in a fume cupboard)

Observation:

– A violent reaction occurs, the saw dust catches fire easily and a lot of brown fumes of nitrogen (IV) oxide given off.

– Nitric (V) acid oxidizes the compounds in saw dust to CO₂ and water; and itself it is reduced to nitrogen (IV) oxide and water.

Equation:

(C, H, O)_n(s) + HNO_3(l) NO_2(g) + CO_2(g) +H₂O_(g)

Saw dust

– Warm concentrated nitric (V) acid oxidizes pure carbon and many other compounds containing carbon.

Equation:

C_(s) + 4HNO_3(l) 2H₂O_(l) + 4NO_2(g) + CO_2(g)

Reaction with sulphur

Procedure:

– 2 cm³of concentrated nitric (V) acid is added to a little sulphur in a test tube and warmed.

– The mixture is filtered to remove excess sulphur and the filtrate diluted with distilled water.

– Drops of barium chloride are then added to the resultant solution.

Observations:

– Red brown gas, nitrogen (IV) oxide (NO₂) is evolved and the sulphur is oxidized to sulphuric acid.

Equation

S_(s) + 6HNO_3(l) H₂SO_4(aq) + 6NO_2(g) +2H₂O_(l)

– On addition of barium chloride to the solution, a white precipitate is formed.

– This is due to formation of barium sulphate and is a confirmation for the presence of SO₄²– ions.

Equation:

Ba²⁺_(aq) + SO₄^2-_(aq) BaSO_4(s)

(White precipitate)

Reaction with metals

– Concentrated nitric (V) acid reacts with metals except gold and platinum.

– Actual reaction depends on the concentration of the acid and the position of the metal in the reactivity series.

– The reaction results in a metal nitrate, NO₂and water.

– Copper, which is low in the reactivity series, reduces conc. HNO₃ to NO₂.

Equation:

C_u(s) + HNO_3(l) C_u(NO₃)_2(aq) + 2NO_2(g) + 2H₂O_(l)

– Metals more reactive than copper e.g. Magnesium may reduce nitric acid to dinitrogen monoxide (N₂O) or Nitrogen (N₂).

– Some metals like iron and aluminium form insoluble layers when reacted with nitric acid thus stopping any further reaction.

Reaction with iron (II) salts

Procedure:

– Few crystals of iron (II) sulphate are dissolved in dilute sulphuric acid.

– A little concentrated nitric (V) acid is added to the solution and mixture warmed.

Observation:

– Green solution turns brown.

Equation:

6FeSO_4(s) + 3H₂SO_4(aq) +3HNO_3(l) 4H₂O_(l) +2NO_(g) + 3Fe₂ (SO₄)_3(aq)

Explanation:

– Nitric acid oxidizes green iron (II) salts (Fe²⁺) to brown iron (III) salts (Fe³⁺) and itself is reduced to Nitrogen (II) Oxide.

Note:

– In air, nitrogen (II) oxide is readily oxidized to nitrogen (IV) oxide; resulting to brown fumes.

Equation:
2NO_(g) + O_2(g) 2NO_2(g)

Reduction of nitric (V) acid by hydrogen sulphide.

Procedure

– A few drops of conc. nitric (V) acid are added to a gas jar full of hydrogen sulphide and the jar then covered.

Observations

– Fumes (brown) of Nitrogen (IV) oxide and yellow deposits of sulphur;

Equation

– It is a REDOX reaction.

Oxidation

H₂S_(g) + 2HNO_3(l) 2H₂O_(l) + 2NO_2(g) +S_(s)

Reduction

Properties of dilute nitric (V) acid

Reaction with metals

– Dilute nitric (V) acid reacts with most metals to form nitrogen (II) oxide instead of hydrogen.

Example:

3Mg_(s) + 8HNO_3(aq) 3Mg(NO₃)_2(aq) +2NO_(g) + 4H₂O_(l)

– In fact HNO₃is reduced to NO and water but NO soon gets oxidized in air to form brown fumes of NO₂.

– However very dilute HNO₃(cold) reacts with more active metals such as Magnesium to produce Hydrogen.

Dilute nitric (V) acid as a typical acid

(a). It turns blue litmus paper red.

(b). It reacts with metal oxides and metal hydroxides to form a metal nitrate and water (Neutralization)

Examples

CuO_(s) + 2HNO_3(aq) Cu (NO₃)_2(aq)+ H₂O_(l)

(Black) (Blue)

Zn(OH)_2(s) + 2HNO_3(aq) Zn (NO₃)_2(aq) + 2H₂O_(l)

(White ppt) (Colourless)

KOH_(aq) + HNO_3(aq) KNO_3(aq) + H₂O_(l)

(Alkali) (Acid) (Salt) (Water)

Reaction with metal carbonates and hydrogen carbonates

– Dilute HNO₃reacts with metal carbonates and hydrogen carbonates to form a nitrate, CO₂and water.

Examples.

CuCO₃(s) + 2HNO_3(aq) Cu(NO₃)_2(aq) + CO_2(g) + H₂O_(l)

(Green) (Blue solution)

NaHCO_3(s) + HNO_3(aq) NaNO_3(aq) + CO_2(g) + H₂O_(l)

Test for nitrates/nitric acid

Oxidation of iron (ii) sulphate

– Concentrated HNO₃ oxidizes green Iron (II) sulphate in presence of sulphuric acid into Iron (III) sulphate (yellow/brown)

– However the solution turns dark brown due to formation of a compound, FeSO₄.NO

– NO is produced by reduction of nitrate to nitrogen monoxide by Fe²⁺

Ionically;

Fe²_+(aq) Fe³⁺_(aq) + e^– (oxidized)

NO₃^–_(aq) + 2H⁺_(aq) + e^– NO_2(g) + H₂O_(l) (reduced)

Brown ring test

Procedure.

– An unknown solid is dissolved then acidified using dilute H₂SO₄.

– Some FeSO₄ solution is then added.

– The test tube is then held at an angle and concentrated sulphuric (V) acid is added slowly (dropwise) to the mixture.

Observations

– The oily liquid (conc. H₂SO₄) is denser than water hence sinks to the bottom.

– A brown ring forms between the two liquid layers if the solid is a nitrate.

Diagrams:

Explanations:

– Suppose the solution tested isKNO₃, the conc. H₂SO₄and the KNO₃reacted to produce HNO₃.

Equation:

KNO₃(aq) +H₂SO_4(aq) KHSO_4(aq) + HNO_3(aq)

– The NO₃^– from nitric acid oxidizes some of the FeSO₄ to Fe₂(SO₄)₃ (Fe²⁺ toFe³⁺) and itself reduced to NO by the Fe²⁺

-The NO so formed reacts with more FeSO4 to give a brown compound (FeSO4 NO) which appears as a brown ring.

Equation:

FeSO_4(aq) + NO_(g) FeSO₄. NO_(aq)

(Green) (Brown)

Ionically:

Fe²⁺_(aq) + 5H₂O_(l) + NO_(g) [Fe(H₂O)₅NO]²⁺_(aq)

(Green) (Brown)

Heat

– Nitrates of less reactive metals decompose easily with gentle heating; clouds of brown NO₂ can be seen.

Equation:

2Cu(NO₃)₂ ^heat 2CuO_(s) + 4NO_2(g) + O_2(g)

(Brown, acidic)

– The nitrates of more reactive metals need much stronger heating and decompose in a different way.

Equation:

2Na NO_3(s) ^heat 2NaNO_2(s) + O_2(g)

Uses of nitric acid

– Large quantities are used in fertilizer manufacture.

– Manufacture of explosives (TNT)

– Manufacture of dyes

– Making nitrate salts

– Etching of metals.

– Manufacture of nylon and terylene

– Refining precious metals

– An oxidizing agent.

Industrial manufacture of nitric acid

The Otswalds process

(a). Introduction

– Nitric acid is manufactured by the catalyst oxidation of ammonia and dissolving the products in water.

(b). Raw materials

– Atmosphere air

– Ammonia from Haber process.

(c). Conditions

– Platinum-rhodium catalyst or platinum gauze.

– The ammonia-air mixture must be cleaned (purified) to remove dust particles which could otherwise poison the catalyst.

(d). Chemical reactions.

Step 1: Compressor reactions.

– Ammonia and excess air (oxygen) (1:10 by volume) is slightly compressed.

– The mixture is then cleaned to remove particles which would otherwise poison the catalyst.

– They are then passed to the heat exchanger.

Step 2: Heat exchanger and catalytic chamber.

– In the heat exchanger, the gaseous mixture is heated to about 900^oC and then passed over a platinum-rhodium catalytic chamber.

– An exothermic reaction occurs and ammonia is oxidized to nitrogen (II) oxide and steam.

Equation:

4NH_3(g) + 5O_2(g) 4NO_(g) + 6H₂O_(g) + Heat.

– The exothermic reaction once started, provides the heat necessary to maintain the required catalytic temperature.

-This is of economical advantage i.e. electrical heating of catalyst is not continued hence lowering production costs.

Step 3: Heat exchanger.

– The hot products from catalytic chamber are again passed back through the heat exchanger.

– The hot gases are cooled and then passed into the cooling chamber.

Step 4: Cooling chamber

– Once cooled, the NO is oxidized to NO₂ by reacting it with excess oxygen.

Equation:

2NO_(g) + O_2(g) 2NO_2(g)

Step 5: Absorption towers:

– The NO₂ in excess air is then passed through a series of absorption towers where they meet a stream of hot water and form nitric (V) acid and nitrous (III) acid.

Equations:

2NO_2(g) + H₂O_(l) HNO_3(aq) + HNO_2(aq) (blue solution)

Nitric Nitrous

– The so produced nitrous (III) acid is oxidized by oxygen in excess air to nitric (V) acid so that the concentration of nitric acid in the solution (liquid) gradually increases.

Equation:

2 HNO_2(aq) + O_2(g) 2HNO_3(aq)

– The resultant HNO₃ is only 55%-65% concentrated.

– It is made more concentrated by careful distillation of the solution.

The process of distillation (increasing the concentration).

– Concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid is added to the dilute nitric (V) acid.

– The heat produced (when dilute sulphuric acid reacts with water) vapourises the nitric (V) acid.

– The resultant nitric (V) acid vapour is condensed.

Note:

Nitric (V) acid is stored in dark bottles.

Reason:

– To prevent its decomposition since it undergoes slow decomposition when exposed to light.

Dilute nitric (V) acid has higher ions concentration than concentrated nitric (V) acid.

Reason.

– Dilute nitric (V) acid is a stronger acid hence ionizes fully to yield more hydrogen ions than concentrated nitric (V) acid.

– Dilute nitric (V) acid is ionic whereas concentrated nitric (V) acid is molecular;

– Dilute nitric (V) acid is more (highly) ionized than concentrated nitric (V) acid.

Flow diagram for the otswalds process.

Ammonia

HEAT EXCHANGER

CATALYTIC CHAMBER

Air

Water Unreacted NO_(g)

NO + air;

Nitric (V) acid

Pollution effects of nitrogen compounds.

Acid rain

– Nitrogen (II) oxide is produced in internal combustion engines on combination of nitrogen and oxygen.

– Nitrogen (II) oxide oxidized to nitrogen (IV) oxide which dissolves in water to form nitric (III) and nitric (V) acids.

– Nitric (v) acid eventually reaches ground as acid rain and causes:

Loss of chlorophyll (chlorosis) from leaves
Corrosion of stone buildings and metallic structures, weakening them and destroying beauty.
Leaching of vital minerals from soils. These are converted into soluble nitrates and washed away from top soil. This leads to poor crop yields.

Smog formation.

– Nitrogen (IV) oxide also undergoes series of chemical reactions in air to produce one of the major components of smog.

– Smog reduces visibility for motorists, irritates eyes and causes breathing problems.

Eutrophication:

– Refers to enrichment of water with excess nutrients for algal growth.

– Presence of nitrate ions from nitrogen fertilizers in a water mass encourages rapid growth of algae.

– This eventually leads to reduction of dissolved oxygen in water, killing aquatic animals like fish.

– Presence of nitrate ions in drinking water may also cause ill health to humans. This is because they are converted into carcinogenic compounds.

Prevention.

Recycling unreacted gases in manufacture of nitric acid to prevent release into environment.
Treating sewage and industrial effluents to remove nitrogen compounds before releasing to rivers and lakes.
Fitting exhausts systems of vehicles with catalytic converters which convert nitrogen oxides into harmless nitrogen gas.
Adding lime to lakes and soils in surrounding regions to reduce acidity.
Applying fertilizers at right and in the correct proportion to prevent them from being washed into water masses.

UNIT 3: SULPHUR AND ITS COMPOUNDS

Checklist:

Occurrence of sulphur
Extraction of sulphur

The Frasch pump
Extraction process

Properties of sulphur

Physical properties
Chemical properties

Uses of sulphur
Allotropes of sulphur

Rhombic sulphur
Monoclinic sulphur

Compounds of sulphur

Sulphur (IV) oxide
Laboratory preparation
Other preparation methods
Properties of sulphur (IV) oxide
- Physical properties
- Chemical properties
- Uses of sulphur (IV) oxide

Sulphur (VI) oxide

Laboratory preparation
Properties of sulphur (VI) oxide

Sulphuric (VI) acid

Large scale manufacture
- Raw materials
- The chemical process
- Pollution control
Properties of concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid
- Physical properties
- Chemical properties
Properties of dilute sulphuric (VI) acid
Uses of sulphuric (VI) acid

Hydrogen sulphide gas

Laboratory preparation
Properties of hydrogen sulphide
Physical properties of hydrogen sulphide
Chemical properties of hydrogen sulphide

Atmospheric pollution by sulphur compounds

Occurrence

– Occurs naturally as s free element in the underground deposits in Texas and Louisiana (USA) and Sicily (ITALY).

– It also occurs as a sulphate and sulphide ores.

Examples;

Metallic sulphides: iron pyrites (FeS₂); Zinc blende (ZnS) Copper pyrites (CuFeS₂)

Metallic sulphates e.g. Gypsum, CaSO₄

Hydrogen sulphide e.g. H₂S present in natural gas.

Extraction of sulphur: The Frasch process

– Is done using a set of 3 concentric pipes called Frasch pump; hence the name Frasch process.

(i). Apparatus: Frasch pump

Hot compressed air

Superheated water at 170^oC

Froth of molten sulphur

Cross section of the Frasch pump

Outermost pipe: brings superheated water at 170^oC

Innermost pipe: brings in hot compressed air;

Middle pipe: brings out a froth of molten sulphur

(ii). Chemical process

Note: Sulphur cannot be mined by conventional mining methods such as open cast, alluvial mining etc

Reasons:

– Sulphur deposits lie very deep under several layers of quicksand hence cannot be accessed easily.

– Sulphur deposits are associated with poisonous gases such as sulphur (IV) oxide gas which can cause massive pollution if exposed to open environment.

– Three concentric pipes, constituting the Frasch pump are drilled through the rock and soil down to the sulphur deposits.

(a). The outer tube (pipe)

– Is used to pump superheated water at 170^o c and 10 atmospheres down the deposits.

– The heat of the water melts the sulphur.

– By the time the water reaches the sulphur, its temperature drops to 120^oC, but this is enough to melt sulphur whose M.P is 114^oC.

(b). The innermost tube

– Is the smallest pipe and is used to blow or force a jet of hot compressed air down the sulphur deposits.

– This produces a light froth of molten sulphur (mixture of air, water and sulphur) which is forced up the middle pipe.

(c). The middle pipe.

– Allows the sulphur froth (mixture of molten sulphur, water and air) into the surface; where mixture is run into large tanks.

– The forth usually settles in two layers, the bottom layer is mainly water while the upper layer is mainly molten sulphur; due to differences in density.

– Once in the settling tanks, sulphur solidifies and separates out; giving 99% pure sulphur.

– The sulphur is removed, melted again and poured into moulds, to form roll sulphur in which form it is sold.

Properties of sulphur

Physical properties

– It is a yellow solid which exists in one amorphous form and 2 crystalline forms.

– A molecule of sulphur consists of a pluckered ring of 8 sulphur atoms covalently bonded.

Diagram: structure of a sulphur molecule.

Solubility

– It is insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents like carbon disulphide, xylene and toluene.

It is a poor conductor of heat and electricity since it is a covalent element lacking free electrons or ions.

Effects of heat

– When sulphur is heated out of contact with air, it melts at low temperatures of about 113^oC to form an amber (orange) coloured mobile liquid.

Reason:

– The S₈ rings open up to form chains of S₈.

Diagrams:

The pluckered S₈ ring of sulphur molecule Chains of S₈ molecule

– On further heating, the liquid darkens in colour.

– At 160^oC, the liquid becomes much darker and very viscous (such that the test tube can be inverted without the sulphur pouring out.)

– The viscosity continues to increase until a temperature of about 195⁰C

Reason:

– The S₈ rings of sulphur are broken and they then join to form very long chains of sulphur atoms, with over 100,000 atoms (S_{100 000}).

Note: As the chains entangle with one another the viscosity increases and colour darkens.

– Near the boiling point, the liquid becomes less dark i.e. red-brown and more mobile (runny).

Reason

– The long chains are broken to shorter chains.

– At 444^oC (boiling point), sulphur vapourises to form a red-brown vapour consisting of S₈, S₆, S₄ and S₂ molecules.

Reason

– The sulphur liquid changes state to form sulphur vapour.

– The vapour is light brown in colour, and consists of a mixture of molecules of formula S₂-S₁₀

Note

– If heated further the larger sulphur vapour molecules (S₈, S₆ etc) dissociate and at 750^oC the vapour is mostly constituted of diatomic molecules (S₂)

– On exposure to cold surfaces the light brown vapour condenses to a yellow sublimate. The yellow sublimate is called flowers of sulphur.

Chemical properties

Burning in air

– It burns in air with a bright blue flame forming a misty gas with a choking smell.

– The gas is sulphur (IV) oxide, with traces of sulphur (VI) oxide, both of which are acidic.

Equation:

S_(s) + O_2(g) SO_2(g)

Note:

The SO₃ is formed due to further oxidation of some of the SO₂ gas

Equation:

2SO_2(s) + O_2(g) 2SO_3(g)

Reaction with acids.

– Dilute acids have no effect on sulphur.

– It is however easily oxidized by concentrated (VI) sulphuric acid and Nitric (VI) acid.

With conc. H₂SO₄

– When warmed with conc. H₂SO₄, sulphur is oxidized to sulphur (IV) oxide while the acid is reduced to the same gas.

Equation:

S_(s) + 2H₂SO_4(l) 3SO_2(g) + 2H₂O_(l)

With conc. HNO₃

– Sulphur is oxidized to sulphuric (VI) acid while acid itself is reduced to red-brown Nitrogen (IV) oxide.

Equation:

S_(s) + 6HNO_3(l) H₂SO_4(aq) + 6NO_2(g) + 2H₂O_(l)

Note:

– The resultant solution gives a white precipitate with a solution of Barium chloride.

Reason

– Due to presence of sulphate ions which combine with Ba²⁺ to form insoluble BaSO_4(s)

Ionically;

Ba²⁺_(aq) + SO₄^2-_(aq) BaSO_4(s)

Reaction with other elements.

– It combines directly with many other elements to form sulphides.

– With metals, sulphur forms metal sulphides, most of which are black.

Examples.

(a). With metals

Iron metal

Fe_(s) + S_(s) FeS_(s) + Heat

(Grey) (Yellow) (Black)

Note:

– During the reaction, the mixture glows spontaneously; immediately the reaction has started.

Copper

2Cu_(s) + S_(s) Cu₂S

(Red-brown) (Yellow) (Black copper (I) sulphide))

(b). Non-metals

Carbon

C_(s) + 2S_(s) CS₂(s)

(Black) (Yellow) (Black Carbon disulphide)

Note.

– Carbon (IV) sulphide has a distinct smell.

– It is an excellent solvent and is used as a pesticide due to its poisonous nature.

Hydrogen

H_2(g) + S_(s) H₂S_(g)

Fluorine

S_(s) + F_2(g) SF_2(g)

Chlorine

S_(s) + Cl_2(g) SCl_2(g)

Bromine

2S_(s) +Br_2(g) S₂Br_2(g)

Phosphorous

10S_(s) + 4P_(s) P₄S_10(s)

Note:

– Sulphur does not react with inert gases, nitrogen and iodine.

Uses of sulphur

Industrial manufacture of sulphuric (VI) acid in the contact process.
It is used as a fungicide for treatment of fungal skin diseases.
It is used for vulcanization (hardening) of rubber
Manufacture of calcium hydrogen sulphite (Ca(HSO₃)₂ used for bleaching in paper and textile industries.
Manufacture of matches and fireworks.
Manufacture of dyes e.g. sulphur blacks that gives paint smooth texture.
Manufacture of sulphur ointments and drugs e.g. sulphur-guanidine for dysentery.
Manufacture of hair oil.
Small amounts of sulphur are added to concrete to prevent corrosion by acids.
Manufacture of fungicides for spraying crops against fungal infections e.g. ridomil, dithane for potato and tomato blights

Allotropes of sulphur

– Allotropy is the existence of an element in more than one form without change of state.

– Sulphur has 2 allotropes

Rhombic sulphur/ octahedral/ alpha-sulphur
Monoclinic/ prismatic sulphur/ beta-sulphur.

-Unlike carbon only the rhombic sulphur occurs naturally.

Comparison of rhombic and monoclinic sulphur.

Allotrope Characteristic	Rhombic sulphur	Monoclinic sulphur
Stability	– Stable below transitional temp. of 96^oC	– Stable above 96^oC
Colour	– Bright yellow crystalline solid	– Pale yellow crystalline solid
Melting point	– Melts at 113^oC;	– Melts at 119^oC;
Density	– About 2.06gcm^-3(heavier than monoclinic Sulphur)	– Lighter than 1.98gcm^-3 (lighter than rhombic sulphur)
Shape	– Octahedral shape Diagram:	– Needle-like/ prismatic Diagram:

Note.

96^oC is called transitional temperature; because both allotropes are stable.

Compounds of sulphur

Oxides of sulphur.

Sulphur (IV) oxide

Laboratory preparation of sulphur (IV) oxide

(i). Apparatus:

Dry sulphur (IV) oxide gas

Sodium sulphite

Dilute HCl

Conc. H₂SO_4(l)

(ii). Procedure

– Dilute HCl or H₂SO₄ is poured into sodium sulphite crystals in the flask.

– The gas produced is passed through conc. Sulphuric acid to dry it.

– If the reaction is slow, the round-bottomed flask is heated (warmed) gently.

– Dry gas is collected by downward delivery as it is denser than air.

(ii). Equation.

Na₂SO_3(aq) + 2HCl_(aq) H₂O_(l) + SO_2(g) + 2NaCl_(aq)

Ionically;

2H⁺_(aq) + SO₃^2-_(aq) H₂O_(l) + SO_2(g)

Note:

– Nitric (V) acid should not be used.

Reason:

– It is a strong oxidizing agent and cannot therefore reduce the metal sulphites.

– Instead it will oxidize the SO₂ produced to sulphuric (VI) acid

Equation:

2HNO_3(aq) + SO_2(g) 2NO_2(g) + H₂SO_4(l)

Other methods of preparing sulphur (IV) oxide.

(b). Preparation from concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid

(i). Apparatus

– As in (a) above

(ii). Procedure

– Copper turnings are covered with concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid and the mixture heated (a must in this case).

Note:

– Dilute sulphuric (VI) acid does not react with copper hence the need for concentrated acid.

– Cold concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid does not also react with copper hence warming.

(iii). Observation.

– When the solution becomes hot, there is evolution of sulphur (IV) oxide gas.

Equation.

C_u(s) +2H₂SO_4(l) CuSO_4(aq) + 2H₂O_(l) + SO_2(g)

Note:

– This reaction is in two stages.

Oxidation of Cu to CuO

– Concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid oxidizes copper to Copper (II) oxide

Equation:

Cu_(s) + H₂SO_4(l) CuO_(s) + H₂O_(l) + SO_2(g)

CuO further reacts with the acid to form salt and water.

Equation:

CuO_(s) + H₂SO_4(l) CuSO_4(aq) + H₂O_(l)

Overall equation:

Cu_(s) + H₂SO_4(l) CuSO_4(aq) + 2H₂O_(l) + SO_2(g)

(c). Roasting sulphur in air

– When sulphur is burnt in air, SO₂ is produced.

Equation:

S_(s) + O_2(g) SO_2(g)

Note:

This reaction is not suitable for preparing a pure sample of the gas in the lab.

Reason

– The gas is contaminated with traces of O₂; N₂; CO₂ and inert gases.

– There are higher chances of environmental pollution, due to escape of some of the gas into the atmosphere.

(d). Roasting metal sulphides in air

Examples:

2FeS_(g) + 3O_2(g) 2FeO_(s) + 2SO_2(g)

2ZnS_(g) + 3O_2(g) 2ZnO_(s) + 2SO_2(g)

Preparation of sulphur (IV) oxide solution.

(i). Apparatus

(ii). Procedure

– Gas is directly passed into water using an inverted funnel; to prevent “sucking back” by increasing surface area for dissolution.

Properties of sulphur (IV) oxide gas

Physical properties

It is a colourless gas with an irritating (pungent) characteristic smell.
It neither burns nor supports combustion i.e. when a lighted splint is introduced into a gas jar full of sulphur (IV) oxide, the splint is extinguished.
It has a low PH.

Chemical properties.

– It is a strong reducing agent.

– An aqueous solution of sulphur (IV) oxide, sulphurous acid is strong reducing agent.

– The sulphite radical, SO₃^2-, acts as a supplier of electrons; the overall reaction results into formation of sulphate ions.

Equations:

H₂SO_3(aq) 2H⁺_(aq) + SO₃^2-_(aq) then;

SO₃^2-_(aq) + H₂O_(l) SO₄^2-_(aq) + 2H⁺_(aq) + 2e-

– The resultant electrons supplied are accepted by an oxidizing agent, which consequently gets reduced.

Examples:

(i). Reduction of acidified potassium manganate (VII).

Procedure.

-To about 2 cm³ of sulphur (IV) oxide solution, 2 cm³ of dilute H₂SO₄was added followed by an equal volume of potassium manganate (VII) solution.

Observations

– Purple solution changes to colourless.

Explanation

– Purple manganate (VII) ions are reduced to colourless manganate (II) ions, while H₂SO₃ (sulphurous (IV) acid) is reduced to sulphate ions and water.

Equation:

5SO_2(g) + 2KMnO_4(aq) + 2H₂O K₂SO_4(aq) + 2MnSO_4(aq)+ H₂SO_4(aq)

Ionically;

2MnO^–_4(aq) + 5SO₃^2-_(aq) + 6H⁺_(aq) 2Mn²⁺_(aq) + 5SO₄^2-_(aq) + 3H₂O_(l)

(ii). Reduction of potassium chromate (IV) solution

Procedure

– To 2 cm³of Sulphur (IV) oxide solution, 2 cm³ of dilute H₂SO₄ was added followed by an equivalent volume of potassium chromate (VI) solution.

Observation

– Acidified potassium chromate (VI) solution change from orange to green.

Equation

K₂Cr₂O_7(aq) + 3SO_2(aq) + H₂SO_4(aq) K₂SO_4(aq) + H₂O_(l) + Cr₂(SO₄)_3(aq)

(Orange) (Green)

Ionically: Oxidation

Cr₂O₇^2-_(aq)+ 3SO₃^2-_(aq) + 8H⁺_(aq) 2Cr³⁺_(aq) + 3SO₄^2-_(aq)

Reduction

Note: this is the usual chemical test for sulphur (IV) oxide.

(iii). Reduction of Iron (III) ions to Iron (II) ions (Fe³⁺ to Fe²⁺)

Procedure

– About 3 cm³ of Iron (III) chloride solution are heated in a test tube and sulphur (IV) oxide gas bubbled into it.

Observations

– The brown solution turns green.

Explanation

– Aqueous sulphur (IV) oxide reduces to Fe³⁺ in FeCl₃ which are brown to green Fe²⁺ in FeCl_2(aq).

Ionically

2Fe³⁺_(aq) + SO₃^2-_(aq) + H₂O_(l) Fe²⁺_(aq) + SO₄^2-_(aq) + H⁺_(aq)

(iv). Reduction of bromine water

Procedure

– Bromine water (red brown) is added to a solution of sulphur (IV) oxide followed by HCl and BaCl₂solution.

Equation

Br_2(aq) + SO_2(g) + 2H₂O_(l) 2HBr_(aq) + H₂SO_4(aq)

Ionically: ^Oxidation

Br_2(aq) + H₂O_(l) + SO₃^2-_(aq) 2HBr_(aq) + SO₄^2-_(aq)

(Red-brown) (Colourless)

Reduction

On addition of barium chloride

– A white precipitate is formed, due to the formation of insoluble barium sulphate.

Equation:

Ba²⁺_(aq) + SO₄^2-_(aq) BaSO_4(s)

Note

– This test confirms presence of SO₄^2- since a white precipitate insoluble in dilute hydrochloric acid is formed.

– CO₃^2-_(aq) and SO₃^2- also forms a white precipitate with BaCl_2(aq) but the white precipitates dissolve in dilute HCl_(aq)

(v). Reduction of hydrogen peroxide

Procedure

– To 2 cm³ of aqueous sulphur (IV) oxide, an equal volume of hydrogen peroxide is added followed by 1 cm³of HCl, then a few drops BaCl₂ solution.

Observation and explanations:

– Bubbles of a colourless gas; that relights a glowing splint.

– Hydrogen peroxide is reduced to water; while the sulphite ion in aqueous sulphur (IV) oxide (H₂SO_3(aq)) is oxidized to SO₄^2-_(aq)

Equation

H₂O_2(l) +SO₃^2-_(aq) H₂O_(l) + SO₄^2-_(aq)

– On addition of BaCl₂, a white precipitate insoluble in dilute HCl.

– This confirms presence of sulphate ions.

Equation:

Ba²⁺_(aq) + SO₄^2-_(aq) BaSO_4(s)

(vi). Reduction of concentrated nitric (V) acid

Procedure

– Sulphur (IV) oxide is bubbled through (into) a solution of concentrated nitric (v) acid.

Observation

– Brown fumes (of NO₂) are liberated.

Explanation

– Sulphur (IV) oxide reduces nitric (V) acid to nitrogen (IV) oxide (brown) while it is itself oxidized by HNO₃ to form H₂SO₄.

– Thus while SO₂ is the reducing agent; HNO₃ is the oxidizing agent.

Equation:

2HNO_3(l) + SO_2(g) 2NO_2(g) + H₂SO_4(aq)

(Brown fumes)

(vii). Reaction with atmospheric oxygen in light.

Procedure:

– About 2 cm³ of Sulphur (IV) oxide solution is left in a test tube in light for 24 hours, dilute HCl is then added, followed by barium chloride.

Observations and explanations:

– Atmospheric oxygen in light oxidizes sulphite ion (SO₃^2-) into sulphate (SO₄^2-)

Equation:

2SO₃^2-_(aq) + O_2(g) 2SO₄^2-_(aq)

– On adding barium chloride, a white precipitate insoluble in dilute HCl results; confirming presence of sulphate ion.

Equation:

Ba²⁺_(aq) + SO₄^2-_(aq) BaSO4_(s)

(White ppt)

Sulphur (IV) oxide as oxidizing agent

– It reacts as an oxidizing agent with reducing agents more powerful than itself.

Examples

(a). Reaction with hydrogen sulphide

Procedure

– A test tube of dry hydrogen sulphide gas is inverted into a gas jar full of moist sulphur (IV) oxide, and the gases allowed to mix.

Observation

– Yellow deposits of sulphur is produced.

Examples:

Oxidation

2H₂S_(g) + SO_2(g) 2H₂O_(l) + 3S_(s)

Reduction

Explanations:

– H₂S is a stronger reducing agent than sulphur (IV) oxide.

– Thus sulphur (IV) oxide acts as an oxidizing agent supplying oxygen to the hydrogen sulphide.

Note

– Dry gases do not react and for this reaction to occur, the gases must be moist or at least one of them.

(b). Reaction with burning magnesium

Procedure

– Burning magnesium is lowered into a gas jar full of sulphur (IV) oxide.

Observation

– White fumes of magnesium oxide and yellow specks of sulphur.

Equation

2Mg_(s) + SO_2(g) 2MgO_(s) + S_(s)

Sulphur (IV) oxide as bleaching agent.

Procedure

– Coloured flower petals are placed in a test-tube full of sulphur (IV) oxide.

Observation

– The coloured (blue or red) petals are bleached (turned colorless);

Explanations:

– In presence of water, sulphur (IV) oxide acts as a bleaching agent. It bleaches by reduction (removal of oxygen form the dye)

– It first combines with water forming the sulphurous acid; which then reduces the dye to form a colourless product.

Equations:

SO_2(g) + H₂O_(l) H₂SO_3(aq)

H₂SO_3(aq) 2H⁺_(aq) + SO₃^2-_(aq)

Then;

SO₃^2-_(aq) + [O] SO₄^2-_(aq)

From dye

General equation

SO_2(g) + H₂O_(l) + [Dye + (O)] Dye + H₂SO_4(aq)

Coloured Colourless

Note

– The original colour may be restored by oxidation or prolonged exposure to air. This explains why old newspapers which were originally bleached white by sulphur (IV) oxide turn brown with time.

– Chlorine bleaches by oxidation hence its oxidation is permanent; SO₂ is however preferred because it is milder in action.

Reaction with sodium hydroxide (alkalis)

Procedure

– A gas jar full of sulphur (IV) oxide is inverted over sodium hydroxide solution in a trough and shaken.

Observations

– Solution seen rises up in the jar.

Explanation

– Sulphur (IV) oxide is acidic, hence easily absorbed by alkaline solutions such as sodium hydroxide solution.

– Sodium sulphite and sodium hydrogen sulphites are formed depending on amount of sulphur oxide.

Equations

With limited sulphur (IV) oxide:

2NaOH_(aq) + SO_2(g) Na₂SO_3(aq) + H₂O_(l)

With excess sulphur (IV) oxide:

NaOH_(aq) + SO_2(g) NaHSO_3(aq)

Reaction with chlorine:

– Sulphur (IV) oxide reacts with moist chlorine to form an acidic mixture of sulphuric (VI) acid and hydrochloric acid.

Equation:

SO_2(g) + SO_2(g) H₂O_(l) H₂SO_4(aq) + 2HCl_(aq)

Explanation:

– Sulphur (IV) oxide serves as the reducing agent reducing chlorine into hydrochloric acid;

– Chlorine acts as the oxidizing agent; oxidizing the sulphur (IV) oxide into sulphuric (VI) acid

Tests for sulphur (iv) oxide

Characteristic pungent smell.
Bleaches flower petals.
Decolourises purple potassium manganate (VII)
Turns filter paper soaked in acidified orange potassium dichromate (VI) solution to green

Sulphur (IV) oxide as a pollutant

– It is industrial waste in some chemical processes.

– The emission to the air it dissolves forming sulphurous acid.

Equation:

SO_2(g) + H₂O_(l) H₂SO_3(aq)

– Sulphurous acid is readily oxidized to sulphuric (VI) acid; which attacks stonework and metal structures causing them to corrode.

– If breathed in, SO₂ causes lung damage.

Uses of sulphur (VI) oxide

– Industrial manufacture of sulphuric (VI) acid.

– Fumigation in green houses for purposes of pest and disease control.

– Preservative in jam and fruit juices.

– Bleaching agent for wool, straw, paper pulp etc.

Sulphuric (VI) acid

Industrial manufacture of sulphuric (VI) acid: The contact process

Raw materials

– Sulphide ores or sulphur.

– Water

– Oxygen (air)

– Concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid.

The chemical process

Step 1: Production of sulphur (VI) oxide

– Sulphur (IV) oxide is obtained b burning the metal ores of sulphides or elemental sulphur in air.

Equation:

S_(s)+ O_2(g) SO_2(g)

– Obtaining sulphur (IV) oxide form pyrites is cheaper than form sulphur.

– Flowers of sulphur form pyrites is impure and contains dust; which involves extra expenses and time in purification.

Step 2: Purification and drying

– The Sulphur (IV) oxide and excess air are passed through a series of driers and purifiers.

– Purifiers remove dust particles, which would otherwise poison the catalyst used in this process by taking up the catalytic surface thus impairing the catalytic efficiency.

– Purification (removal of dust) is by electrostatic precipitation.

– Are dried through concentrated sulphuric acid then passed through heat exchanger.

Step 3: Heat exchanger reactions

– The pure dry SO₂ and excess air mixture are passed into heat exchanger reactions.

Reason:

– To lower their temperatures since reaction in the proceeding chamber (catalytic chamber) are exothermic hence requiring lower temperatures.

Step 4: Catalytic chamber

– Dry dust-free SO₂ is mixed with clean excess air, heated and passed into a catalytic chamber containing vanadium (V) oxide catalyst.

Equation V₂O₅

2SO_2(g) + O_2(g) 2SO_3(g) + Heat

450^oC

– The product is sulphur (VI) oxide, SO₃.

– Formation of sulphur (VI) oxide is accompanied by evolution of heat (exothermic reaction) and a reduction in volume.

Note:

– A good yield of SO₃ is favoured by the following conditions.

Temperature

– The forward reaction is exothermic hence the yield can be favourable in low temperatures.

– However, at such low temperatures the equilibrium is attained very slowly.

– At high temperatures, equilibrium is achieved very quickly but sulphur (VI) oxide decomposes considerably.

– Thus a compromise optimum temperature of about 450^oC is used in order to enable as much sulphur (VI) oxide as possible to be made in a reasonable time.

– From the graph, high SO₃ yield is favoured by relatively low temperatures.

Graph: %age yield of sulphur (VI) oxide against temperature.

Pressure

– High pressures favour production of more sulphur (VI) oxide.

Reason

– The volume of gaseous reactants is higher than volume of gaseous products.

– Since reaction involves reduction in volume, theoretically pressure used should be as high as is economically convenient.

Note:

– High pressures are however disadvantageous.

Reason

– The equipment required to generate high pressure would be expensive to maintain.

– The high pressure could also liquefy sulphur (VI) oxide.

– A pressure slightly above atmospheric pressure is used providing 98% conversion at low maintenance costs.

Catalyst

– A catalyst neither takes part in a reaction nor increases the yield.

– It merely speeds up the reaction i.e. reduces the time taken to react at equilibrium of 450^oC.

– Main catalyst is vanadium (V) oxide (V₂O₅).

– It is spread out (in trays) on silica gel to increase the surface area for combination of reactants.

– Dust settled in the catalyst may reduce its effective area.

– Dust may also react with the catalyst, poison it and further reduce its efficiency.

– This explains need to purify gases thoroughly.

– An effective catalyst is platinised asbestos.

– However, vanadium (V) oxide is preferred.

Reasons:

– It is not easily poisoned by dust particles.

– It is cheaper and readily available.

Note:

– The highest yield of sulphur (VI) oxide is obtained at optimum conditions of 450⁰C and pressure 2-3 atmospheres in presence of vanadium (V) oxide or platinised asbestos.

Step 5: Heat exchanger reactions

– Hot SO₃gas from catalytic chamber is again passed through heat exchanger for cooling after which the cooled gas is taken into an absorption chamber.

Step 6: Absorption chamber

– The SO₃ is not dissolved (passed) into water directly.

Reason

– It dissolves in water exothermically with a loud, hissing sound giving off corrosive vapour resulting into harmful sulphuric acid sprays or mist all around.

– The SO₃ is dissolved in conc. H₂SO₄ forming oleum (pyrosulphuric acid/ fuming sulphuric acid).

Equation:

SO_3(g) + H₂SO_4(l) H₂S₂O_7(l)

– Resultant Oleum is then channeled into a dilution chamber.

Step 7: Dilution chamber.

– Oleum is diluted with correct amounts of water to form concentrated sulphuric acid.

Equation:

H₂S₂O_7(l) + H₂O_(l) 2H₂SO_4(aq)

Summary: flow diagram for the contact process:

Pollution control in contact process.

– Main source of pollution is sulphur (IV) oxide.

– In catalyst chamber, SO₂ reacts with oxygen forming SO₃.

Equation: V₂O₅

2SO_2(g) + O_2(g) 2SO_3(g) + Heat

450^oC

– This is a reversible reaction and upto 98% conversion is possible and excess (unreacted) SO₂ warmed and released into atmosphere via long chimneys.

– However, SO₂ being a pollutant, little or none should be released into atmosphere.

– This is done by scrubbing the gas.

– This involves neutralizing the chimney gas by a solution of Calcium hydroxide forming a salt (calcium sulphite) and water.

Equation:

Ca(OH)_2(aq) + SO_2(g) CaSO_3(aq) + H₂O_(l)

Note:

– In certain cases, filters are also installed to remove any traces of acid spray or mist form the exhaust gases.

– The unreacted gases (SO₂ and SO₃) may also be recycled within the process.

Properties of concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid

Physical properties

– Colourless, odourless, oily liquid.
– Very dense; with density 1.84 gcm^-3.
– Soluble in water and gives out considerable heat when a solution is formed.
– It is hygroscopic absorbs atmospheric moisture to become wet.

Experiment: To show hygroscopic nature of conc. H₂SO₄.

(i). Procedure

– A small beaker half full of conc. H₂SO₄ is weighed.

– Level of acid in beaker is marked to the outside using gummed paper.

– Acid is left exposed to air for a week or so then weighed again and level also noted.

(ii). Observations

– There is an increase in weight of acid.

– Level of acid in beaker is now above the paper mark.

(iii). Explanations

– The increase in weight and size is due to water absorbed form the air by the conc. sulphuric (VI) acid.

Note:

– This explains why sulphuric (VI) acid is used as a drying agent.

Chemical properties

– It is a dehydrating agent.

Examples:

(a). Action on blue hydrated copper (II) sulphate (CuSO₄.5H₂O) crystals.

(i). Procedure

– A few crystals of hydrated CuSO₄.5H₂O were put in a test tube and enough concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid added, to cover them completely.

(ii). Observation:

– Blue copper (II) sulphate pentahydrate crystals turn to white powder of anhydrous CuSO₄.

Equation

Conc. H₂SO₄

CuSO₄.5H₂O_(s) CuSO_4(s) + 5H₂O_(l)

(Blue crystals) (White crystals)

Explanations:

– Conc.H₂SO₄ has a very strong affinity for water and hence removes water of crystallization from crystals hence dehydrating them.

(b). Action on white sugar (C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁)

(i). Procedure:

– A tablespoonful of sugar is put in an evaporating dish form a beaker and adequate volume of conc. H₂SO₄ is added.

(ii). Observations:

– Sugar turns form brown then yellow and finally to a charred black mass of carbon.

– A spongy black mass of charcoal (carbon) rises almost filling the dish.

– Steam is also give off and dish becomes very hot since reaction is exothermic.

Equation

Conc. H₂SO₄

C₁₂H₂₂O_11(s) 12C_(s) + 11H₂O_(l)

(White crystals) (Black solid)

Explanation

– The acid removed from the sugar elements of water (hydrogen and oxygen, ratio 2:1) to form water, leaving behind a black charred mass of carbon.

(c). Action on oxalic acid (ethanedioic acid (H₂C₂O₄)

– Conc. H₂SO dehydrates oxalic acid on heating to a mixture of carbon (II) oxide and carbon (IV) oxide.

Conc. H₂SO₄

Equation

H₂C₂O_4(s) CO_(g) + CO_2(g) + H₂O_(l)

Note:

– Conc. H₂SO₄ acid gives severe skin burns because it removes water and elements of water from skin tissue.

– Should the acid spill on skin, it is washed immediately with plenty of water followed with a solution of sodium hydrogen carbonate.

– Holes appear where the acid spills on clothes for same reason.

(d). Action on alcohols (alkanols)

– Conc. sulphuric (VI) acid dehydrates alcohols to corresponding alkenes.

Example: dehydration of ethanol to ethene

Equation:

Conc. H₂SO₄

CH₃CH₂OH_(s) C₂H_4(g) + H₂O_(l)

(Ethanol) (Ethene)

(e). Action on methanoic acid.

– Conc. sulphuric (VI) acid dehydrates methanoic acid to form CO.

Conc. H₂SO₄

Equation:

HCOOH_(s) CO_(g) + H₂O_(l)

Further reactions of conc. H₂SO₄ as an oxidizing agent.

– Hot concentrated Sulphuric acts as an oxidizing agent in which cases it is reduced to sulphur (IV) oxide and water.

Examples:

(a). Reaction with metals.

Copper

Cu_(s) + 2H₂SO_4(l) CuSO_4(aq) + SO_2(g) + 2H₂O_(l)

Note: the copper (II) sulphate formed is white since the conc. H₂SO₄ further dehydrates the hydrated CuSO₄.

Zinc

Zn_(s) + 2H₂SO_4(l) ZnSO_4(aq) + SO_2(g) + 2H₂O_(l)

(Hot acid)

Zn_(s) + H₂SO_4(l) ZnSO_4(aq) + H_2(g)

(Cold acid)

Lead

Pb_(s) + 2H₂SO_4(l) PbSO_4(aq) + SO_2(g) + 2H₂O_(l)

(Hot; conc.) (Insoluble)

Note:

– Dilute sulphuric (VI) acid doesnt have any action on copper.

Reason:

– Copper is below hydrogen in reactivity series hence cannot displace it from the acid.

– This acid (H₂SO₄) has very little effects on lead, and usually the amount of SO₂ liberated is very little.

Reason:

– Formation of an insoluble lead sulphate layer that forms a protective coating on the metal stopping further reaction.

(b). Reaction with non-metals.

– Concentrated sulphuric acid oxidizes non-metals such as sulphur and carbon to their respective oxides.

Equations:

Ø With carbon

C_(s) + 2H₂SO_4(l) CO_2(g) + 2SO_2(g) + 2H₂O_(l)

Ø With sulphur

S_(s) + 2H₂SO_4(l) 3SO_2(aq) + 2H₂O_(l)

It is a less volatile acid; and displaces more volatile acids (refer to lab preparation of HNO₃)

Reactions of dilute sulphuric acid

Reaction with metals

– It reacts with metals above hydrogen in the reactivity series to produce a salt and hydrogen.

– With potassium and sodium, reaction is violent.

Equations:

With magnesium:

Mg_(s) + H₂SO_4(aq) MgSO_4(aq) + H_2(g)

With zinc:

Zn_(s) + H₂SO_4(aq) ZnSO_4(aq) + H_2(g)

Note:

– Copper is below hydrogen in reactivity series hence cant displace hydrogen form dilute sulphuric (VI) acid.

Reaction with carbonates and hydrogen carbonates

– Dilute H₂SO_4(aq) reacts with carbonates and hydrogen carbonates to produce a salt, carbon (IV) oxide and water.

Equations

With sodium carbonate:

Na₂CO_3(s) + H₂SO_4(aq) Na₂SO_4(aq) + CO_2(g) + H₂O_(l)

With calcium hydrogen carbonate:

CaHCO_3(s) + H₂SO_4(aq) CaSO_4(aq) + CO_2(g) + H₂O_(l)

Note:

– Reaction with lead carbonate however stops soon after the reaction.

Reason:

– Formation of an insoluble coating of the lead (II) sulphate on the lead (II) carbonate which prevents further contact between acid and carbonate.

– The same logic applies for calcium carbonate.

Reaction with oxides and hydroxides

– Reacts to form salt and water.

– However, those metal oxides whose sulphates are insoluble react only for a while.

– Thus reaction between dilute sulphuric (VI) acid and lead (II) oxide stops almost immediately.

– This is due to formation of an insoluble layer of lead (II) sulphate which effectively prevents further contact between acid and oxide.

Equations:

With magnesium oxide:

MgO_(s) + H₂SO_4(aq) MgSO_4(aq) + H₂O_(g)

(White) (Colourless solution)

With copper (II) oxide:

CuO_(s) + H₂SO_4(aq) CuSO_4(aq) + H₂O_(g)

(Black) (Blue solution)

With sodium hydroxide:

NaOH_(s) + H₂SO_4(aq) Na₂SO_4(aq) + 2H₂O_(g)

(White) (Colourless solution)

With lead (II) oxide:

PbO_(s) + H₂SO_4(aq) PbSO_4(aq) + H₂O_(g)

(Red) (White ppt; reaction stops immediately)

Uses of sulphuric (VI) acid

Manufacture of fertilizers.
Processing of metal ores.
Manufacture of detergents.
Manufacture of plastics.
Manufacture of dyes and paints.
Manufacture of lead and accumulators.
Manufacture of polymers.
Manufacture of petroleum (petroleum refinery).
Drying agent in industrial processes.

Hydrogen sulphide gas

– It is a colourless gas with a characteristic rotten egg smell; and is usually given out by rotting cabbage and eggs.

Laboratory preparation

(i). Apparatus:

Warm water

H₂S_(g)

Iron (II) sulphide

Dil. HCl

Anhydrous Dry H₂S gas

Calcium chloride

Iron (II) sulphide

Dil HCl

(ii). Procedure:

– Dilute hydrochloric acid is poured into Iron (II) sulphide in a round-bottomed flask.

– Resultant gas is passed through U-tube with anhydrous calcium chloride to dry the gas.

– This can also be done with phosphorous (V) oxide.

Equation:

FeS_(s) + 2HCl_(aq) H₂S_(g) + FeCl_2(aq)

Ionically:

S^2-_(aq) + H⁺_(aq) H₂S_(g)

(iii). Collection of gas

– When dry, the gas is collected by downward delivery because it is denser than air.

– When wet is collected over warm water because it is more soluble in cold water.

Hydrogen sulphide test.

– When a strip of filter paper soaked in aqueous lead (II) ethanoate is put in hydrogen sulphide, the paper turns black or dark brown.

Reason:

– Due to the formation of lead (II) sulphide which is black.

Equation

H₂S_(g) + (CH₂COOH)₂Pb_(aq) PbS_(s) + 2CH₃COOH_(aq)

Properties of hydrogen sulphide gas

Physical properties

Colourless and very poisonous gas (similar to hydrogen cyanide)
Has a repulsive smell (similar to that of rotten eggs or decaying cabbages)
Soluble in water giving a weak acid (only slightly ionized)

Equation:

H2_S(g) + H₂O_(l) H₂S_(aq)

Then:

H₂S_(aq) H⁺_(aq) + HS^–_(aq) 2H⁺_(aq) + S^2-_(aq)

– The acid is dibasic hence forms hydrogen sulphides.

Equation:

2NaOH_(aq) + H₂S_(g) NaHS_(aq) + 2H₂O_(l)

Note:

– Potassium hydroxide reacts similarly like sodium hydroxide.

Chemical properties

Combustion

– Burns in a blue flame in a limited supply of oxygen (air) forming a yellow deposit of sulphur and steam.

Equation:

2H₂S_(g) + O_2(g) 2SO_2(s) + 2H₂O_(g)

– In plentiful supply (excess) of Oxygen (air) it burns with a blue flame forming SO₂ and steam.

Equation:

2H₂S_(g) +3O_2(g) 2S_(s) + 2H₂O_(g)

It is a reducing agent

– It supplies electrons which are accepted by the oxidizing agent and forms sulphur.

Ionically:

H₂S_(aq) + 2H⁺_(aq) + S^2-_(aq)

Then

S^2-_(aq) S_(s) + 2e^–_(aq)

H₂S_(aq) + [O] S_(s) + H₂O_(l); in terms of addition of oxygen.

Examples

(i). With acidified K₂Cr₂O₇ solution (potassium dichromate VI)

Equation:

Reduction:

Cr₂O₇^2-_(aq) + 3H₂S_(g) + 8H⁺_(aq) 2Cr³⁺_(aq) + 7H₂O_(l) + 3S_(s)

(Orange) (Green)

Oxidation

Observation: The orange solution turns green and H₂S oxidized to yellow sulphur.

(ii). Potassium manganate (VII) (KMnO₄)

Equation:

Reduction:

2MnO₄^–_(aq) + 5H₂S_(g) + 6H⁺_(aq) 2Mn²⁺_(aq) + 8H₂O_(l) + 5S_(s)

(Purple) (Colourless)

Oxidation

Observation:

– The Purple solution turns colourless

– Manganate (VII) ions are reduced to manganate (II) ions; H₂S oxidized to yellow sulphur.

(iii). Action on Iron (III) chloride ions

Equation:

FeCl_3(aq) + H₂S_(g) 2FeCl_2(aq) + 2HCl_(aq) + S_(s)

Ionically:

Reduction:

Fe³⁺_(aq) + S^2-_(g) Fe²⁺_(aq) + 3S_(s)

(Brown) (Pale green)

Oxidation

Observation:

– The brown solution turns pale green;

– The Fe³⁺_(aq) are reduced to Fe²⁺_(aq); while the S^2-_(aq) are oxidized to yellow sulphur.

(iv). Action with Conc. HNO₃

Equation:

2HNO_3(aq) + H₂S_(g) 2H₂O_(aq) + 2NO_2(aq) + S_(s)+ Heat

Ionically:

Reduction:

2H⁺_(aq) + 2NO₃^–_(aq) + H⁺_(aq) + S^2-_(aq) 2H₂O_(l) + 2NO_2(g) + S_(s)+ Heat

(Colourless solution) (Brown) (Yellow)

Oxidation

Observation:

– Evolution of brown fumes; and deposits of a yellow solid;

– HNO_3(aq) is reduced to brown NO_2(g); while S^2-_(aq) are oxidized to yellow sulphur;

Note: The solution also contains H₂SO₄ produced by the reaction:

Reduction

2HNO_3(aq) + H₂S_(g) H₂SO_4(aq) + 8NO_2(aq) + 4H₂O_(l);

Oxidation

(v). Action of air on H₂S

– The gas is dissolved in distilled water in a beaker and exposed to air; after a few days, a white disposal is formed.

Equation:

H₂S_(g) + O_2(g) 2H₂O_(l) + 2S_(s)

(vi). Action with concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid.

Equation

Reduction

H₂SO_4(aq) + 3H₂S_(g) 4S_(s) + 4H₂O_(l)

Oxidation

(vii). Action with halogen elements

Red-brown bromine water

– Red-brown bromine water is reduced forming colourless hydrogen bromide (Hydrobromic acid) and yellow deposits (suspension) of sulphur.

Equation:

Reduction

Br_2(aq) + H₂S_(g) 2HBr_(aq) + S_(s)

(Red-brown) (Colourless) (Yellow suspension)

Oxidation

(viii). Action with hydrogen peroxide.

Equation:

Reduction

H₂O_2(aq) + H₂S_(g) 2H₂O_(l) + S_(s)

(Red-brown) (Colourless) (Yellow suspension)

Oxidation

Preparation of metallic sulphides

– Hydrogen sulphide reacts with metal ions in solution to form precipitates of metal sulphides; majority of which are black in colour.

(i). Procedure

– The gas is bubbled through solutions of the following salts: Pb (NO₃)₂, CuSO₄, FeSO₄ etc.

(ii). Observations and equations

Lead ions:

Pb(NO₃)_2(aq) + H₂S_(aq) PbS_(s) + 2HNO_3(aq)

(Colourless) (Black)

Ionically:

Pb²⁺_(aq) + S^2-_(aq) PbS_(s)

Copper (II) ions:

CuSO_4(aq) + H₂S_(aq) CuS_(s) + H₂SO_4(aq)

(Blue) (Black)

Ionically:

Cu²⁺_(aq) + S^2-_(aq) CuS_(s)

Iron (II) ions:

FeSO_4(aq) + H₂S_(aq) FeS_(s) + H2SO_4(aq)

(Pal green) (Black)

Ionically:

Fe²⁺_(aq) + S^2-_(aq) FeS_(s)

Zinc ions:

Zn(NO₃)_2(aq) + H₂S_(aq) ZnS_(s) + 2HNO_3(aq)

(Colourless) (Black)

Ionically:

Zn²⁺_(aq) + S^2-_(aq) ZnS_(s)

Note:

– Most metal sulphides are insoluble in water except those of sodium, potassium and ammonium.

Sulphites

– Are compounds of the sulphite radical (SO₃^2-) and a metallic or ammonium cation

Effects of heat

– They decompose on heating, forming SO₂;

Example:

CuSO_3(s) ^Heat CuO_(s) + SO_2(g)

Test for sulphites

(i). Procedure

– To 2cm³ of the test solution, ad 2 cm³ of BaCl₂ or Ba (NO₃)₂; i.e. addition of barium ions.

– To the mixture add 2 cm³ of dilute HCl or HNO₃.

(ii). Observation

– A white precipitate (BaSO₃) is formed which dissolves on addition of acid.

– Production of a colourless gas that turns filter paper soaked in acidified orange potassium dichromate (VI) to green.

(iii). Explanations

– Only BaSO₃; BaCO₃ and BaSO₄ form white precipitates;

– The precipitates of BaSO₃ and BaCO₃ dissolve on addition of dilute acids; unlike BaSO₄;

– BaSO₃ produces SO_2(g) as it dissolves on addition of a dilute acid; SO₂ turns orange acidified potassium dichromate (VI) to green;

– BaCO₃ of the other hand dissolves in dilute acids producing CO₂; which has no effect on K₂Cr₂O₇; but forms a white precipitate in lime water;

Equations:

On addition of Ba²⁺:

Ba²⁺_(aq) + SO₃^2-_(aq) BaSO_3(s)

(White precipitate)

On addition of dilute HCl(aq):

BaSO_3(s) + 2HCl_(aq) BaCl_2(aq) + SO_2(g) + H₂O_(l)

(White precipitate) (Colourless)

Ionically:

BaSO_3(s) + 2H⁺_(aq) Ba²⁺_(aq) + SO_2(g) + H₂O_(l)

Sulphates

– Are compounds of the sulphate radical (SO₄^2-) and a metallic or ammonium cation.

Effects of heat.

– Decompose on heating and liberate SO₂ and SO₃or SO₃alone;

– However quite a number of sulphates do not decompose on heating; and thus require very strong heating in order to decompose.

Examples:

2FeSO_4(s) ^Heat Fe₂O_3(s) + SO_2(g) + SO_3(g)

(Pale green) (Brown) (Colourless gases)

CuSO_4(s) ^Heat CuO_(s) + SO_3(g)

(Blue) (Black) (Colourless)

Action of acids

Test for sulphates

– To about 2 cm³ of the test solution, 2 cm³ of BaCl₂ or Ba (NO₃)₂ solution is added.

– To the mixture, 2 cm₃ of dilute HCl or HNO₃ is added.

Observation

– A white precipitate is formed when Ba (NO₃)₂ is added; which is insoluble in excess acid.

Explanations.

– Only BaSO₃; BaCO₃ and BaSO₄ form white precipitates;

– The precipitates of BaSO₃ and BaCO₃ dissolve on addition of dilute acids; unlike BaSO₄;

– Thus the white precipitate insoluble in dilute HCl or HNO₃ could only be a sulphate; in this case barium sulphate.

Equations:

On addition of Ba²⁺:

Ba²⁺_(aq) + SO₄^2-_(aq) BaSO_4(s)

(white precipitate)

On addition of dilute acid:

BaSO_4(s) + 2HCl_(aq) BaSO_4(s) + 2HCl_(aq); i.e. no effect;

(White precipitate) (White precipitate)

Pollution by sulphur compounds.

– Main pollutants are sulphur (IV) Oxide and hydrogen sulphide.

(a). Sulphur (IV) oxide.

– SO₂ is emitted when sulphur-containing fuels are burnt; during extraction of metals like copper and in manufacture of sulphuric (VI) acid.

– SO₂ is oxidized to SO₃;

– SO₃ reacts with water in atmosphere to form sulphuric (VI) acid which comes down as acid rain or acid fog.

Acid rain (fog) has environmental effects:

Leaching of minerals in soil;
Erosion of stone work on buildings;
Corrosion of metallic structures;
Irritation of respiratory systems thus worsening respiratory illnesses;
Death of plants as a result of defoliation (falling of leaves);
Destruction of aquatic life in acidified lakes;
Stunted plant growth due to chlorosis;

(b). H₂S is very poisonous.

UNIT 5: CHLORINE AND ITS COMPOUNDS.

Unit Checklist:

About chlorine.
Preparation of chlorine.
Properties of chlorine.

Colour and smell
Solubility in water
Action on litmus paper
Bleaching action
Action on hot metals
Reaction with non-metals
Oxidation reactions
Reaction with alkalis
Effect of sunlight on chlorine water.

Industrial manufacture of chlorine (The mercury cathode cell)
Uses of chlorine and its compounds
Hydrogen chloride gas

Preparation
Properties

Test for chlorides.
Hydrochloric acid

Large scale manufacture
Uses of hydrochloric acid

Environmental pollution of chlorine and its compounds

Introduction:

– Chlorine is a molecular non-metallic element made up of diatomic molecules.

– Its electron arrangement is 2.8.7 and it belongs to the halogen family.

Preparation of chlorine.

Note: It is usually prepared by oxidation of concentrated hydrochloric acid by removal of hydrogen.

Equation:

2HCl_(aq) + [O] Cl_2(g) + H₂O_(l)

– The [O] is from a substance containing oxygen.

(a). Preparation of chlorine from MnO₂ and HCl.

(i). Apparatus:

(ii). Conditions:

– Heating;

– Presence of an oxidizing agent; in this case it is manganese (IV) oxide.

(iii). Procedure:

– Hydrochloric acid is reacted with manganese (IV) oxide (dropwise);

Equation:

MnO_2(s) + 4HCl_(aq) ^Heat MnCl_2(aq) + 2H₂O_(l) + Cl_2(g)

(iv). Explanation:

– Manganese (IV) oxide oxidizes hydrochloric acid by removing hydrogen resulting into chlorine.

– The manganese (IV) oxide is reduced to water and manganese chloride.

– The resultant chlorine gas is passed through a bottle containing water.

Reason:

– To remove hydrogen chloride fumes (gas) which is very soluble in water.

– Next it is passed through concentrated sulphuric acid or anhydrous calcium chloride; to dry the gas.

(v). Collection:

(a). Wet chlorine is collected over brine (saturated sodium chloride solution) or hot water.

Reason:

– It does not dissolve in brine and is less soluble in water

(b). Dry chlorine is collected by downward delivery (upward displacement of air)

Reason:

– It is denser than air (2.5 times).

Note:

– Chlorine may also be dried by adding calcium chloride to the jar of chlorine.

(c). The first bottle must contain water and the second concentrated sulphuric acid.

Reason:

– If the gas is first passed through concentrated sulphuric acid in the first bottle then to the water; it will be made wet again.

Properties of chlorine gas.

Colour and smell.

Caution: Chlorine is very poisonous.

– It is a green-yellow gas with an irritating pungent smell that attacks the nose and the lungs.

– It is 2.5 times denser than air, hence can be collected by downward delivery.

Solubility in water.

– It is fairly soluble in water forming green-yellow chlorine water.

Equation:

Cl_2(g) + H₂O_(l) HCl_(aq) + HOCl_(aq)

– Chlorine water is composed of two acids; chloric (I) acid (hypochlorous acid) and hydrochloric acid.

Action on litmus paper.

– Moist chlorine turns litmus paper red then bleaches it.

– Dry chlorine turns damp blue litmus paper red then bleaches it.

– Moist chlorine bleaches red litmus paper; dry chlorine bleaches damp red litmus paper.

– Dry chlorine has no effect on dry litmus paper.

Reasons:

(i). In presence of moisture chlorine forms chlorine water which is acidic and hence turns blue litmus paper red.

(ii). Hypochlorous acid in the chlorine water is an oxidizing agent; thus adds oxygen (oxidizes) to the colour of most dyes; hence bleaching it.

Equations:

Cl_2(g) + H₂O_(l) HCl_(aq) + HOCl_(aq)

Acidic solution

Then:

Dye + HOCl_(aq) HCl_(aq) + {Dye + [O]}

Coloured Colourless

Bleaching action.

– Moist chlorine bleaches dyes but not printers ink which is made of carbon.

– The colour change is due to oxidation by hypochlorous acid.

Equations:

Cl_2(g) + H₂O_(l) HCl_(aq) + HOCl_(aq)

Acidic solution

Then:

Dye + HOCl_(aq) HCl_(aq) + {Dye + [O]}

Coloured Colourless

Action on a burning splint.

– The gas put out a glowing splint. It does not burn.

Action on hot metals.

(a). Preparation of iron (III) chloride.

(i). Apparatus.

(ii). Precaution.

– Experiment should be done in a fume cupboard or in the open.

Reason:

– Chlorine gas is poisonous and will thus be harmful to the human body.

(iii). Procedure:

– Dry chlorine gas is passed over iron wool as per the diagram.

(iv). Conditions.

Chlorine gas has to be dry (done by the anhydrous calcium chloride in the U-tube)

Reason:

To prevent hydration hence oxidation of iron (which will then form Fe₂O₃.5H₂O) hence preventing reaction between iron and chlorine.

Iron metal must be hot; and this is done by heating.

Reason:

To provide activation energy i.e. the minimum kinetic energy which the reactants must have to form products.

Anhydrous calcium chloride.

– In the U-tube; to dry the chlorine gas.

– In the thistle funnel; to prevent atmospheric water vapour (moisture) from getting into the apparatus and hence reacting with iron (III) chloride.

(v). Observations:

– Iron metal glows red-hot.

– Red brown fumes (FeCl_3(g)) are formed in the combustion tube.

– A black solid (FeCl_3(s)) is collected in the flask.

Note:

– Iron (III) chloride cannot be easily collected in the combustion tube.

Reason:

– It sublimes when heated and hence the hotter combustion tube causes it to sublime and its vapour is collected on the cooler parts of the flask.

(vi). Reaction equation.

2Fe_(s) + 3Cl_2(g) 2FeCl_3(g)

(vii). Conclusion.

– Iron (III) chloride sublimes on heating; the black solid changes to red-brown fumes on heating.

Equation:

FeCl_3(s) FeCl_3(g)

(black) (Red-brown)

(b). Aluminium chloride.

2Al_(s) + 3Cl_2(g) 2FeCl_2(s)

2Al_(s) + 3Cl_2(g) Al₂Cl_6(s)

Note:

– Aluminium chloride also sublimes on heating.

Equation:

AlCl_3(s) AlCl_3(g)

(White) (White)

(c). Reaction with burning magnesium.

(i). Procedure:

– Burning magnesium is lowered into a gar jar of chlorine gas.

(ii). Observations:

– The magnesium continues to burn with a bright blinding flame;

– Formation of white fumes (MgCl₂); which cools into a white powder.

(iii). Equation:

Mg_(s) + Cl_2(g) MgCl_2(s)

– Generally chlorine reacts with most metals when hot top form corresponding chlorides.

Note:

Where a metal forms two chlorides when it reacts with chlorine, the higher chloride is usually formed.

Reason:

The higher chloride is stable. This explains why reactions of chlorine with iron results into iron (III) chloride and not iron (II) chloride.

Reaction with non-metals.

– It reacts with hot metals; forming covalent molecular compounds.

(a). Reaction with phosphorus.

(i). Procedure:

– A piece of warm phosphorus is lowered into a gas jar of chlorine.

(ii). Observations:

– Phosphorus begins to smoulder and then ignites spontaneously.

– Evolution of white fumes (PbCl₃ and PCl₅)

(iv). Explanation.

– Chlorine reacts with warm dry phosphorus to form white fumes of phosphorus (III) and (V) chlorides.

Equations:

P_4(s) + 6Cl_2(g) 4PCl_3(s)

(With limited chlorine)

P_4(s) + 10Cl_2(g) 4PCl_5(s)

(With excess chlorine)

(b). Reaction with hydrogen.

(i). Conditions:

– Heating or presence of light; since chlorine and hydrogen do not react with each other at room temperature.

(ii). Precaution:

– The experiment is performed in a fume chamber (cupboard); since the reaction is explosive;

(iii). Procedure:

– Chlorine gas is mixed with hydrogen gas and the mixture heated or exposed to direct light; then aqueous ammonia brought near the mouth of the jar.

(iv). Observations:

– White fumes at the mouth of the jar.

(v). Explanations:

– Chlorine reacts explosively with hydrogen to form hydrogen chloride gas.

Equation:

Cl_2(g) + H_2(g)^{Heat/ Light} 2HCl_(g).

– The hydrogen chloride gas diffuses upwards and reacts with ammonia at the mouth of the test tube to form white fumes of ammonium chloride; NH₄Cl.

Equation:

HCl_(g) + NH_3(g) NH₄Cl_(g)

White fumes.

Chlorine as an oxidizing agent.

– Chlorine is a strong oxidizing agent and oxidizes many ions, by readily accepting electrons.

– During the process, chlorine itself undergoes reduction.

(a). Reaction with hydrogen sulphide gas.

(i). Procedure:

– A gas jar full of chlorine gas is inverted into another containing hydrogen sulphide gas.

(ii). Apparatus:

(iii). Observations:

– Yellow deposits (of sulphur)

– Misty fumes (hydrogen chloride gas)

(iv). Explanations:

– Chlorine oxidizes hydrogen sulphide gas to sulphur solid, while itself is reduced to hydrogen chloride gas.

Equation: _Oxidation

Cl_2(g) + H₂S_(g) 2HCl_(g)+ S_(s)

^Reduction

(v). Conditions:

– At least one of the gases must be moist; they do not react with each other in absence of moisture.

Note:

– In absence of moisture both gases are still in molecular form and hence cannot react; water facilitates their ionization hence ability to react.

– If aqueous hydrogen sulphide is used, then sulphur forms as a yellow suspension on the acidic solution.

Equations:

Stoichiometric:

Cl_2(g) + H₂S_(aq) 2HCl_(aq)+ S_(s)

Ionic:

Cl_2(g) + S^2-_(g) 2Cl^–_(g)+ S_(s)

(b). Reaction with sodium sulphite.

Procedure:

– Chlorine gas is bubbled through sodium sulphate in a beaker.

– Resulting solution is then divided into two portions.

– To the first portion, drops of dilute nitric acid are added followed by few drops of barium nitrate solution.

– To the second portion, few drops of lead (II) nitrate are added and the mixture warmed then cooled.

(ii). Observations:

1^st portion: White precipitate formed indicating presence of SO₄^2-;

Explanations:

– The white precipitate indicate presence of SO₄^2-; the precipitate is barium sulphate Ba(SO₄)₂;

– Chlorine oxidizes SO₃^2- in Na₂SO₃ to SO₄^2- while itself is reduced to chloride ions;

Equations:

H₂O_(l) + Cl_2(g) + Na₂SO_3(aq) Na₂SO_4(aq) + 2HCl_(aq)

Ionically:

Cl_2(g) + SO₃^2-_(aq) + H₂O_(l) SO₄^2-_(aq) +2H⁺_(aq) + 2Cl^–_(aq)

– On adding barium nitrate (Ba(NO₃)₂); the Ba²⁺ ions react with the SO₄^2-to form insoluble BaSO₄; the white precipitate.

Ionically;

Ba²⁺_(aq)+ SO₄^2-_(aq)BaSO_4(s)

(White precipitate)

Note:

– The solution is first acidified (with HNO₃) before addition of Ba(NO₃)₂ to prevent precipitation of BaSO_3(s)and BaCO_3(s).

2^nd portion:

Observation:

– Formation of a white precipitate on addition of Pb(NO₃)₂solution.

– On warming the white precipitate dissolves then recrystalizes back on cooling.

Explanations:

– The white precipitate shows presence of either Cl^–; SO₃^2-orSO₄^2-

– However the fact that it dissolves on warming confirms the presence of Cl^–_(aq) and not SO₃^2-_(aq) and SO₃^2-_(aq)

Equation:

Pb²⁺_(aq)+ Cl^–_(aq)PbCl_2(s)

(White precipitate soluble on warming)

(c). Reaction with ammonia.

(i). Procedure:

Chlorine gas is bubbled through aqueous ammonia.

(ii). Observations:

– Evolution of white fumes.

(iii). Explanation.

– Chlorine gas oxidizes ammonia to nitrogen, while is itself reduced to white fumes of ammonium chloride.

Equation: _Reduction

8NH_3(g) + 3Cl_2(g) 6NH₄Cl_(g)+ N_2(s)

^Oxidation

(d). Displacement reactions with other halogens.

(i). Procedure:

– Chlorine is bubbled through aqueous solutions of fluoride, bromide and iodide ions contained in separate test tubes.

(ii). Observations and explanations:

With fluoride ions.

– No observable change or no reaction; because chlorine is a weaker oxidizing agent than fluorine.

With bromide ions:

– If potassium bromide was used, the colourless solution turns red-brown.

Reason:

– Chlorine has a higher tendency to gain electrons than bromine.

– It readily oxidizes bromide ions (in KBr) to form potassium chloride and bromine which immediately dissolves to make the solution red-brown.

Equation: _Reduction

2KBr_(aq) + Cl_2(g) 2KCl_(aq)+ Br_2(l)

^Oxidation^{Red brown}

Ionically;

2Br^–_(aq) + Cl_2(g) 2Cl^–_(aq) + Br_2(l)

With iodide ions.

– Using potassium iodide the colourless solution would turn black.

Reason:

– Chlorine has a higher tendency to gain electrons that iodine.

– It readily oxidizes the I^– (in KI) to form iodine and potassium chloride.

– Iodine solid in the resulting solution makes it black.

Equation: _Reduction

2KI_(aq) + Cl_2(g) 2KCl_(aq)+ I_{2(l) (black)}

^Oxidation

Ionically;

2I^–_(aq) + Cl_2(g) 2l^–_(aq) + Br_2(l)

Reaction with alkalis.

(a). Reaction with sodium hydroxide solution.

(i). Procedure:

– Bubble chlorine slowly through cold dilute sodium hydroxide solution.

– Dip litmus paper.

(ii). Observation:

– Litmus paper is bleached; the product has the colour and smell of chlorine.

(iii). Explanation:

– Chlorine dissolves in sodium hydroxide to form a pale yellow solution of sodium chlorate (I) or sodium hypochlorite (NaClO);

– The sodium chlorate (I) bleaches dyes by oxidation.

Equation:

Cl_2(g)+ 2NaOH_(l) NaCl_(aq) + NaClO_(aq)+ H₂O_(l)

Pale yellow solution

Bleaching action of NaClO:

– The NaClO donates oxygen to the dye making it colourless; and thus it bleaches by oxidation.

Equation:

Dye + NaClO_(aq) NaCl_(aq) + {Dye + [O]}

Coloured Colourless

Note:

With hot concentrated sodium hydroxide, the chlorine forms sodium chlorate (III); NaClO₃.

Equation:

3Cl_2(g)+ 6NaOH_(l) 5NaCl_(aq) + NaClO_3(aq)+ 3H₂O_(l)

(b). Reaction with potassium hydroxide

– Follows the trend of sodium.

(c). Reaction with slaked lime {Ca(OH)_2(s)}

Equation:

Cl_2(g)+ Ca(OH)_2(l) CaOCl_2(aq)+ 3H₂O_(l)

Calcium chlorate I

Note:

Bleaching powder, CaOCl₂ always smells of strongly of chlorine because it reacts with carbon (IV) oxide present in the atmosphere to form chlorine.

Equation:

CaOCl_2(s) + CO_2(g) CaCO_3(s) + Cl_2(g)

Effects of chlorine gas on:

(a). A burning candle.

(i). Procedure:

– A burning candle is lowered into a gas jar of chlorine.

(ii). Observations:

– It burns with a small, red and sooty flame.

(iii). Explanations:

– Wax (in candles) consists of mainly hydrocarbons.

– The hydrogen of the hydrocarbon reacts with chlorine forming hydrogen chloride while leaving behind carbon.

(b). warm turpentine.

(i). Procedure:

– A little turpentine is warmed in a dish and a filter paper soaked (dipped) in it.

– The filter paper is then dropped into a gas jar of chlorine.

(ii). Observation:

– There is a red flash accompanied by a violent action whilst a black cloud of solid particles form.

(iii). Conclusion:

– Black cloud of slid is carbon.

– Turpentine (a hydrocarbon) consists of hydrogen and carbon combined together.

– The chlorine combines with hydrogen and leaves the black carbon behind.

Equation:

C₁₀H_16(l) + 8Cl_2(g) 16HCl_(g) + 10C_(s)

Effects of sunlight on chlorine water.

(i). Procedure:

– Chlorine water is made by dissolving the gas in water.

– A long tube filled with chlorine water is inverted over a beaker containing water.

– It is then exposed to sunlight (bright light) as shown below.

(ii). Apparatus:

(iii). Observations:

– After sometime a gas collects in the tube and on applying a glowing splint, the splint is rekindles showing that the gas collected is oxygen.

(iv). Explanation:

– Chlorine water has two components.

Equation:

Cl_2(g) + H₂O_(l) HCl_(aq) + HOCl_(aq)

– The HOCl being unstable will dissolve on exposure to sunlight, giving out oxygen.

Equation:

2HOCl_(aq) 2HCl_(aq) + O_2(g) (slow reaction)

Overall reaction:

2H₂O_(l) + 2Cl_2(g) 4HCl_(aq) + O_2(g)

Industrial manufacture of chlorine (the mercury cathode cell)

The electrolysis of brine

(i). Apparatus.

(ii). Electrolyte.

– Brine, concentrated sodium chloride solution, NaCl

(iii). Electrodes.

Anode: carbon (graphite)

Cathode: Flowing mercury;

(iv). Ions present:

NaCl_(aq) Na⁺_(aq) + Cl^–_(aq)

H₂O_(l) H⁺_(aq) + OH^–_(aq)

(v). Reactions:

Anode:

– Cl^– and OH^– migrate to the anode.

– Because of high concentration of Cl^–_(aq), they are discharged in preference to OH^– ions.

Equation:

2Cl^–_(aq) Cl_2(g) + 2e^–

(Green-yellow)

Cathode:

– H⁺_(aq) and Na⁺_(aq) migrate to the cathode.

– Because the cathode is made of mercury, Na⁺_(aq) is discharged in preference to H⁺_(aq) ions;

Equation:

2Na⁺_(aq) + 2e^– 2Na_(s)

Note:

– Sodium formed at the cathode dissolves in the flowing mercury cathode to form sodium amalgam (Na/Hg).

– Sodium amalgam is reacted with water to form sodium hydroxide and hydrogen.

– Mercury (in the sodium amalgam) remains unreacted.

Equation:

2Na/Hg_(l) + 2H₂O_(l) 2NaOH_(aq) + H_2(g) + 2Hg_(l)

– The unreacted mercury is recycled.

(vi). Products:

– Chlorine gas at the anode.

– Hydrogen and sodium hydroxide at the cathode.

Uses of chlorine gas and its compounds.

Manufacture of hydrochloric acid.
Used in form of bleaching powder in textile and paper industries.
For sterilization of water for both domestic and industrial use and in swimming pools.
Used in sewage treatment e.g. NaOClO₃ solution used in latrines.
Manufacture of plastics (polyvinyl chloride; PVC)
Manufacture of germicides, pesticides and fungicides e.g. DDT and some CFCs.
CFCs are used to manufacture aerosol propellants.
Manufacture of solvents such as trichloromethane and some chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
CFCs are commonly freons are used as refrigerants in fridges and air condition units due to their low boiling points.
Manufacture of chloroform, an aesthetic.

Hydrogen chloride gas.

Laboratory preparation of hydrogen chloride gas.

(i). Apparatus:

(ii). Procedure:

– Concentrated sulphuric acid is reacted with sodium chloride, and the mixture heated gently.

– Resultant gas is passed through conc. Sulphuric (VI) acid; to dry the gas.

(iii). Equation:

H₂SO_4(l) + NaCl_(aq) NaHSO_4(s) + HCl_(g)

Ionically;

H⁺_(aq) + Cl^–_(aq) HCl_(g)

Note:

– The reaction can proceed in the cold, but on large scale HCl(g) is produced by the same reaction but the heating is continued to re hot.

Properties of hydrogen chloride gas.

Colourless gas with a strong irritating pungent smell.
Slightly denser than air (1¼ times). This makes it possible to collect the gas by downward delivery.
Very soluble in water; and fumes strongly in moist air forming hydrochloric acid deposits.

Diagram:

– The aqueous solution is known as hydrochloric acid.

– It is almost completely ionized (a strong acid) in aqueous solution.

Equation:

HCl_(aq) H⁺_(aq) + Cl^–_(aq)

– This solution has the usual acidic properties:

Examples:

(i). turns blue litmus red.

(ii). Liberates hydrogen gas with certain metals e.g. zinc, Magnesium, iron etc.

Note:

Hydrochloric acid does not react with metals below hydrogen in the reactivity series.

Equations:

Zn_(s) + 2HCl_(aq) ZnCl_2(aq) + H_2(g)

Mg_(s) + 2HCl_(aq) MgCl_2(aq) + H_2(g)

Fe_(s) + 2HCl_(aq) FeCl_2(aq) + H_2(g)

(iii). Neutralizes bases to form salt and water.

Examples:

HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) +H₂O(l)

2HCl(aq) + CuO(s) CuCl₂(aq) + H₂O(l)

(iv). Liberates carbon (IV) oxide from carbonates and hydrogen carbonates.

Examples:

CaCO_3(s) + 2HCl_(aq) CaCl_2(aq) + H₂O_(l) + CO_2(g)

ZnCO_3(s) + 2HCl_(aq) ZnCl_2(aq) + H₂O_(l) + CO_2(g)

NaHCO_3(s) + HCl_(aq) NaCl_(aq) + H₂O_(l) + CO_2(g)

Note:

As the hydrogen chloride gas very soluble in water, the solution must be prepared using a funnel arrangement; to prevent sucking back and increase the surface area for the dissolution of the gas;

Diagram: dissolution of hydrogen chloride gas

Dry hydrogen chloride is NOT particularly reactive at ordinary temperatures, although very reactive metals burn in it to form the chloride and hydrogen gas.

Equation:

2Na_(s) + 2HCl_(aq) 2NaCl_(s) + H_2(g)

Metals above hydrogen in the reactivity series react with hydrogen chloride gas when heated.

Note:

If reacted with some metals it forms 2 chlorides e.g. iron where iron (II) and iron (III) chlorides exist.

Hydrogen chloride gas forms white fumes of ammonium chloride when reacted with ammonia gas;

Equation:

NH_3(g) + HCl_(g) NH₄Cl_(s)

Note: This is the chemical test for hydrogen chloride gas.

Hydrogen chloride is decomposed by oxidizing agents, giving off chlorine.

Examples:

PbO_2(s) + 4HCl_(g) PbCl_2(s) + 2H₂O_(l) + Cl_2(g)

MnO_2(s) + 4HCl_(g) MnCl_2(s) + 2H₂O_(l) + Cl_2(g)

Diagram: reacting hydrogen chloride with an oxidizing agent.

Test for chlorides.

Test 1: Using silver ions:

Procedure:

– To the test solution, add silver ions from silver nitrate.

– Acidify with dilute nitric acid.

(ii). Observations and inference:

– Formation of a white precipitate shows presence of Cl^–_(aq)

(iii). Explanations:

– Only silver carbonate and silver chloride can be formed as white precipitates.

– Silver carbonate is soluble in dilute nitric acid but silver chloride is not.

Equations:

– Using Cl^– from NaCl as the test solution;

NaCl_(aq) + AgNO_3(aq) NaNO_3(aq) + AgCl_(s)

White ppt.

Ionically;

Ag⁺_(aq) + Cl^–_(aq) Ag_(s)

White ppt.

Note:

– This precipitate dissolves in excess ammonia.

– The white precipitate of silver chloride turns violet when exposed to light.

Test 2: Using lead ions

(i) Procedure:

– To the test solution, add lead ions from lead (II) nitrate, then warm

(ii). Observations and inference:

– Formation of a white precipitate that dissolves on warming shows presence of Cl^–_(aq)

(iii). Explanations:

– Only lead carbonate, lead sulphate, lead sulphite and lead chloride can be formed as white precipitates.

– Only lead chloride dissolves on warming; unlike the rest which are insoluble even on warming.

Equations:

Using Cl^– from NaCl as the test solution;

2NaCl_(aq) + Pb(NO₃)_2(aq) 2NaNO_3(aq) + PbCl_2(s)

White ppt.

Ionically;

Pb²⁺_(aq) + Cl^–_(aq) PbCl_2(s)

White ppt.

Hydrochloric acid.

Large scale manufacture of hydrochloric acid.

(i). Diagram:

(ii). Raw materials:

– Hydrogen obtained as a byproduct of petroleum industry; electrolysis of brine or from water by Bosch process;

– Chlorine obtained from the electrolysis of brine or as fused calcium chloride.

(iii). Procedure:

– A small sample of hydrogen gas is allowed through a jet and burnt in excess chlorine gas.

Equation:

H_2(g) + Cl_2(g) 2HCl_(g)

Precaution: A mixture of equal volumes of hydrogen and chlorine explodes when put in sunlight.

– The hydrogen chloride gas formed is dissolved in water over glass beads.

– The glass beads increase the surface area over which absorption takes place.

– Commercial hydrochloric acid is about 35% pure.

– Hydrochloric acid is transported in steel tanks lined inside with rubber.

– If the acid comes into contact with exposed parts of metal or with rust, it forms iron (III) chloride that makes the acid appear yellow.

Pollution in an industry manufacturing hydrochloric acid.

(i). Chlorine is poisonous.

(ii). Mixture of hydrogen and oxygen in air is explosive when ignited.

Uses of hydrochloric acid.

Sewage treatment.
Treatment of water (chlorination) at the waterworks.
Removing rust from metal e.g. descaling iron before it is galvanized or and other metals before they are electroplated.
Making dyes, drugs and photographic materials like silver chloride on photographic films.

Environmental pollution by chlorine and its compounds.

Chlorine may dissolve in rain and fall as acid rain, which has adverse effects on plants and animals, buildings and soil nutrients.
CFCs are non-biodegradable. Over time, they diffuse into the atmosphere breaking down to free chlorine and fluorine atoms. These atoms deplete the ozone layer. Chlorine is thus one of the greenhouse gases.
PVCs are non-biodegradable.
DDT is a pesticide containing chlorine and has a long life span, affecting plants and animal life.

Note: DDT is banned in Kenya; NEMA advises increased use of pyrethroids in mosquito control.

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY I

Contents checklist.

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

Definition

– The chemistry of hydrogen carbon chain compounds.

– It the study of carbon compounds except the oxides of carbon i.e. CO, CO₂ and Carbons.

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY I: THE HYDROCARBONS

Hydrocarbons

Are compounds of hydrogen and carbon only; and are the simplest organic compounds.

Main groups of hydrocarbons

Are classified on the basis of the type of bonds found within the carbon atoms.

Alkanes: Are hydrocarbons in which carbon atoms are linked by single covalent bonds.
Alkenes: Carbon atoms are held by at least one double bond.
Alkynes: Have at least one triple bond between any tow carbon atoms.

Saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons

(a). Saturated hydrocarbons

– Are hydrocarbons which the carbon atoms are bonded to the maximum number of other atoms possible.

– hydrocarbons which don react and hence cannot decolourise both Bromine water and acidified potassium manganate (VII).

– They are compounds in which each carbon atom has only single covalent bonds, throughout the structure.

(b). Unsaturated hydrocarbons

– Are hydrocarbons which contain at least one double or bond, between any two adjacent carbon atoms.

– The carbon atoms do not have maximum covalency.

– They can decolourise both bromine water and acidified potassium manganate (VII).

Examples: All alkenes and Alkynes.

Experiment: To verify saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons.

Procedure:
– 3 to 4 drops of bromine wate are added to about 1 cm3 of the liquid under investigation.

– The mixture is then shaken thoroughly and the observations recorded;

– For gases the gas under investigation is bubbled ito 1 cm3 of bromine water;

– The procedures are then repeated with acidified potassium manganate (VII);

Observations:

COMPOUND	OBSERVATIONS
COMPOUND	With potassium permanganate	With Bromine water
Kerosene	No observable colour change	No colour change
Laboratory gas	No observable colour change	No observable colour change
Turpentine	Purple colour turns colourless	Solution is decolourised
Hexane	No observable colour change	No observable colour change
Pentene	Potassium permanganate is decolourised	Solution is decolourised

Conclusion

– Kerosene, laboratory gas and hexane are saturate hydrocarbons

– Turpentine and pentane are unsaturated hydrocarbons.

Homologous series

– Refers to a group of organic compounds that have the same general formula, whose consecutive members differ by a similar unit, and usually have similar chemical properties.

Characteristics of a Homologous series.

(i). Can be represented by a general formula;

(ii). Have similar chemical properties

(iii). Have similar structures and names

(iv). They show a steady gradation of physical properties

(v). Can usually be prepared by similar methods.

Structural and molecular formula

Molecular formulae

– Simply shows the number and type of elements (atoms) in the compound.

Structural formula

Shows how the different atoms in the molecules (of a compound) are bonded or joined together.

Example:

Methane

Molecular formula CH₄;

Structural formula

│

H – C – H

│

Alkanes

Are the simplest hydrocarbons with the general formula; C_nH_{2n + 2} where n = number of carbon atoms in the molecule.

Examples:

– For compound with only 1 carbon atom, formula = CH₄

– 2 carbon atoms; the formula = C₂H₆

Names and formulas of the first 10 Alkanes

Note:

Consecutive members of the alkane series differ by a CH₂-unit, hence a homologous series.

(a). General formula

– The Alkanes have a general formula C_nH_2n+2 where n is the number of carbon atoms in the molecule.

Example:

When n = 3, (2n + 2) = 8, and the alkane has the formula C₃H₈ (Propane)

(b). Structure

– In all Alkanes the distribution of bonds around each carbon atom is tetrahedral.

Example: Methane

(c). Homologous series

– The Alkanes differ from each other by a CH₂-.

– Thus methane, CH₄differs from ethane, C₂H₆ by CH₂-, and ethane in turn differs from propane C₃H₈ by C ₂-.

– They therefore form a homologous series.

(d). Functional groups

– A functional group is a part of a compound which has a characteristic set of properties.

– Thus when a bromine atom replaces a hydrogen atom in an alkane, it imparts to the compound new chemical and physical properties.

Examples: six important functional groups.

(e). Isomerism

– Is a situation whereby two or more compounds have similar molecular formulae but different structural formula.

– Such compounds are called isomers, i.e compounds with the same molecular formula but different structural formula.

Examples: For Butane, (C₄H₁₀) there are two possible structures.

Isomers have different physical and chemical properties.

Example: Ethanol and dimethyl ether.

– Molecular formula: both have C₂H₆O

Structural formula:

(i). Ethanol (ii). Dimethyl ether

Differences

Ethanol

Dimethyl ether

– A liquid of boiling point 78.4^oC

– Completely soluble in water

– Reacts with sodium ethoxide and liberates hydrogen gas

– A gas at room temperature (B.P 24⁰C).

– Slightly soluble in water.

– Does not react with sodium metal.

(f). Alkyl groups

– Is a group formed by the removal of a hydrogen atom form a hydrocarbon.

– Alkyl groups dont exist on their own but are always attached to another atom or group.

Naming of alkyl groups

– Is done by removing the ending -ane from the parent alkane and replacing it with yl.

Examples

Methane (CH₄) gives rise to Methyl -CH₃

Ethane (C₂H₆) gives rise to ethyl, – C₂H₅i.e. -CH₂CH₃

Propane (C₃H₈) gives rise to Propyl, – C₃H₇ // -CH₂CH₂CH₃;

(g). Nomenclature of Alkanes

– Generally all Alkanes end with the suffix -ane;

– Alkanes can either be straight chain or branched.

(i). Straight chain Alkanes

– The names of all Alkanes end with the suffix -ane;

Examples:

Methane, ethane, propane, butane.

– With the exception of the first 4 members of the series (i.e. the 4 listed above) the names of Alkanes begin with a Greek prefix indicating the number of carbon atoms in the main chain.

Examples: – Pentane 5 carbon atoms

Hexane 6 carbon atoms.

(ii). Branched Alkanes

The naming of branched chain Alkanes is based on the following rules:-

The largest continuous chain of carbon atoms in the molecule is used to deduce the parent name of the compound.
The carbon atoms of this chain are numbered such that the branching // substituents are attached to the carbon atom bearing the lowest number.
The substituent // branch is named e.g. methyl, ethyl etc and the name of the compound written as one word.

Examples

Further examples

H H H CH₂CH₂CHCH₂CH₃

│ │ │ │ │

H – C – C – C – H CH₃ CH₂

│ │

H – C – H CH₃

│ 3-ethylhexane;

2-methylpropane;

Further examples.

CH₃CH₂CH₂CH₃

│

CH₃

3-methylpentane;

CH₃

│

H₃C – C – CH₃

│

CH₃

2, 2-dimethylpropane;

Note: refer to course books and draw as many examples as possible.

Draw the structural isomers of:

Butane.

Pentane;

Hexane;

(f). Occurrence of Alkanes

– There are 3 known natural sources:

(i). Natural gas: this consists of mainly of methane;

(ii). Crude oil:

– Consists of a mixture of many Alkanes

– It can be separated into its components by fractional distillation.

Reason:

– The different components have different boiling points.

(iii). Biogas: This contains about 60-75% of methane gas/marshy gas.

Separation of the components of crude oil.

(i). Apparatus

(ii). Procedure

– The apparatus is arranged as shown above.

– The first distillate appears at about 120^oC and is collected, the of 40^oC intervals thereafter until the temperatures reach 350^oC.

(iii). Observations and explanations

– This method of separation is called fractional distillation, and depends on the fact that the various components of the mixture have different boiling points.

– The various fractions vary in properties as explained below.

(a). Appearance

– Intensity of the colour increases with increase in boiling point.

– Boiling point increases with increasing number of carbon atoms.

Reason:

– The higher the number of carbon atoms, the higher the number of covalent bonds.

– Thus the first fraction to be distilled (lab gas) is colourless while the last distillates (between) is dark black in colour.

(b). Viscosity

– Increases with increasing boiling point;

– The fractions with low boiling points are less viscous while the fraction with the highest boiling point is semi-solid;

(c). Inflammability:

– Decreases with increasing boiling points.

– The gaseous fractions, with least boiling points readily catches fire // burn, while the semi-solid fractions with very high boiling points are almost non-combustible.

Note: Some Hydrocarbons are found in more than one fraction of crude oil and more advanced chemical methods are necessary for complete separation.

Uses of the various fractions of crude oil.

No. f carbon atom per molecule	Fractions	Uses
1-4	Gases	Laboratory gases and gas cookers
5-12	Petrol	Fuel in petrol engines
9-16	Kerosene (paraffin)	Fuel for jet engines (aeroplanes) and domestic uses
15-18	Light diesel oils	Fuel for heavy diesel engines e.g. for ships
18-25	Diesel oils	Fuel for diesel engines
20-70	Lubricating oils	Used for smooth running of engine parts
>70	Bitumen	Road tarmacking

Changes // gradation of physical properties across the alkane homologous series

Name of alkane

Formula

State of room temperature (208K)

M.P (K)

B.P (K)

Density

(g cm^-3)

Solubility

Methane

Ethane

Propane

Butane

Pentane

Hexane

Heptane

Octane;

Nonane

Decane

CH₄

C₂H₆

C₃H₈

C₄H₁₀

C₅H₁₂

C₆H₁₄

C₇H₁₆

C₈H₁₀

C₉H₂₀

C₁₀H₂₂

↑

Gaseous

↓

↑

Liquid

↓

138

143

178

243

112

184

231

273

309

342

447

0.424

0.546

0.582

0.579

0.626

0.659

0.730

Preparation and chemical properties of Alkanes

Note:

– Alkanes, like any other Homologous series have similar chemical properties.

– Generally any alkane can be represented form the reaction represented by the following equation:

C_nH_{2n + 1}COONa + NaOH_(aq) → C_nH_{2n +2} + Na₂CO_3(aq);

Thus;

– Methane can be prepared form sodium ethanoate (CH₃COONa)

– Ethane can be prepared form sodium propanoate (CH₃CH₂COONa)

– Propane can be prepared form sodium Butanoate (CH₃CH₂CH₂COONa)

Laboratory Preparation of methane

(i). Apparatus

(ii). Procedure

– About 5g of odium ethanoate and an equal mass of soda lime is put in a hard glass test tube, upon mixing them thoroughly in a mortar.

– The mixture is heated thoroughly in the test-tube.

(iii). Observation

– A colourless gas collects over water

Reasons:

– Methane does not react with and is insoluble in water.

Equation

CH₃COONa + NaOH_(s) → CH_4(g) + Na₂CO_3(aq)

Sodium ethanoate sodalime Methane Sodium carbonate

Physical properties of methane

It is a non-poisonous, colourless gas.
It is slightly soluble in water, but quite soluble in organic solvents such as ethanol and ether.
II is less denser than air and when cooled under pressure, it liquefies.

Chemical properties

Burning

– It is flammable and burns in excess air // oxygen with a pale blue non-luminous flame to give carbon (IV) oxide ad water vapour.

Equation:

CH_4(g) + 2O_2(g) → CO_2(g) + 2H₂O_(g)

Note: In a limited supply of air, the flame is luminous.

Reason:

– This is due to incomplete combustion of the methane.

– A mixture of methane and air explodes violently when ignited if the volume ratio is approximately 1:10 and this is often the cause of fatal explosions in coal mines.

Reaction with Bromine water and acidified potassium permanganate

– When methane is bubbled through bromine water the red brown colour of bromine persists; and when bubbled through acidified potassium manganate (VII) solution; the purple colour of the solution remains;

– Thus it has no effect on either bromine water or acidified potassium permanganate.

Reason: It is a saturated hydrocarbon.

Substitution reactions

– A substitution reaction is one in which one atom replaces another atom in a molecule.

Example: The substitution of Bromine in methane.

Procedure:

– A sample of Methane (CH₄) is placed in a boiling tube and to it is added some bromine gas.

– The tube is stoppered, and the mixture shaken, then allowed to stand and exposed to ultra-violet lamp.

Observations

– The red colour of Bromine begins to fade, and the pungent smell of hydrogen bromide (HBr) gas is detectable when the stopper is removed.

– A moist blue litmus paper also turns red on dipping into the resultant mixture.

Equation CH_4(g) + Br_2(g) → CH₃Br_(g) + HBr_(g)

Explanation – For a chemical reaction to occur, bonds must be broken. – The light energy (V.V. light) splits the Bromine molecule into free atoms, which are very reactive species. – Similarly the energy breaks the weaker carbon hydrogen bonds, and not the stronger carbon carbon bonds. – The free bromine atoms can then substitute (replace one of the hydrogen atoms of methane, resulting unto bromomethane and hydrogen bromide gas.

Note: This process can be repeated until all hydrogen atoms in CH₄ are replaced.

Write all the equations to show the stepwise substitution of all hydrogen atoms in methane.

– The substitution reactions can also occur with chlorine, forming chloremethane dichloromethane, trichloromethane (chloroform) and tetrachloromethane (carbon tetrachloride) respectively.

Equations:

Uses of methane – It is used as a fuel – Used in the manufacture of carbon black which is used in printers ink and paints. – Used in the manufacture of methanol, methanal, chloromethane and ammonia.

Cracking of Alkanes – Is the breaking of large alkane molecules into smaller Alkanes, alkenes and often hydrogen. It occurs under elevated temperatures of about 400-700^oC

Equation

Example: Cracking of propane

Alkenes

– Are hydrocarbons with at least one carbon-carbon double bond, and have the general formula C_nH_2n.

– They thus form a homologous series with the simplest member behind ethane.

Names and formulae of the first six alkenes.

Name of alkene

Formula

Ethene

Propane

Pbut-l-ene

Pent-lene

Hex-tene

NOMENCLATURE OF ALKENES

Rules

The parent molecule is the longest carbon chain; and its prefix is followed by the suffix ene.
The carbon atoms in the chain are numbered such that the carbon atoms joined by the double bonds get the lowest possible numbers.
The position of the substituent groups is indicated by showing the position of the carbon atom to which they are attached.
In case of 2 double bonds in an alkene molecule, the carbon atom to which each double bond is attached must be identified.

Examples

Questions: For each of the following alkenes, draw the structural formula

Hex- l ene
Prop-l-ene

Hex-2-ene

Give the IUPAC names for:

Note: Branched alkenes:

Event for branched alkenes, the numbering of the longest carbon chain is done such that the carbon atoms joined by the double bonds gets the smallest numbers possible.

Isomerism in alkenes

Alkenes show two types of isomerism:-

Branching isomerism
Positional isomerism

i) Branching isomerism

Occurs when a substitutent groups is attached to one of the carbon atoms in the largest chain containing the double bond.

Positional isomerism; in alkenes

Is a situation whereby two or more unsaturated alkenes have same molecular formular but different structural formula; due to alteration of the position of the double bond.

Question: Draw all the possible isomers of Hexene , resulting from positional and branching isomerism.

Gradation of physical properties of Alkenes

Name of alkene

Formula

(MP⁰C)

B.P (0)

Density g/cm³

solubility

Ethene

Propene

But-l-ene

Pent-l-ene

Hex-l-ene

-169

-189

-185

-138

-98

-104

–47.7

-6.2

-3.0

-98

–

0.640

0.674

Note: the double bond is the reactive site in alkenes

Preparation and chemical properties of Ethene

i) Apparatus

Procedure

A mixture of ethanol and concentrated sulfuric acid in the ratio 1:2 respectively are heated in a flask to a temp. of 160⁰C 180⁰C.

Observation

A colourless gas results; and is collected over water.

Reasons: Its insoluble, unreactive and lighter than water.

Equation

Explanation

At 160⁰C 180⁰C the conc. H2SO4 dehydrates the ethanol, removing a water molecule form it and the remaining C and H atoms rearrange and combine to form Ethene which is collected as colourless gas.

Note: At temperature below 140⁰C, a different compound called ether is predominantly formed.

Ethene can also be prepared by passing hot aluminum oxide over ethanol. The later of which acts as a catalyst i.e.

Reactions of ethene/chemical properties

Burning/combustion

Just like an alkenes and alkanes, ethene burn in air, producing carbon dioxide and large quantities of heat.

Equation:

Caution: Mixtures of air and ethene can be explosive and must be handled very carefully.

Additional reactions:

Is a reaction in which are molecule adds to another to form a single product occur in alkenes due to presence of a double bond.

With oxidizing agents
i) Reaction with acidified potassium permanganate.

Procedure: Ethene is bubbled into a test tube containing acidified potassium permanganate.

Observation: The purple colour of the solution disappears.

Explanation: Ethene reduces the potassium permanganate.

The permanganate ion is reduced to Manganese (II) ion and water.

Equation

Note: The net effect of the above reaction is the addition of two OH groups to the double bond forming ethan-1, 2-dio(ethylene glycol).

In cold countries ethylene glycol is used as an antifreeze in car radiators.

Reaction with acidified potassium chromate (VI) (K2Cr2O7)

Halogenations is the addition of halogen atoms across a double bond.
i) Reaction with Bromine Br2(g)

Procedure: Ethene is mixed with Bromine liquid/gas

Observation: The reddish brown bromine gas is decoloursed/becomes colourless.

Explanation: Bromine is decoloursed due to the addition of Bromine atoms to the twocarbon atoms f the double bond forming 1.2 dibromethane.

ii) Reaction with chlorine

The Chlorine (greenish yellow) also gets decoloursied due the addition of its atoms on the double bond.

Note: Alkenes react with and decolourise halogens and potassium permanganate by additional reaction at room temperature and pressure.

The reaction site is the double bond and hence/all alkenes will react in a similar manner.

Example; Butene and Bromine

iii) Reaction with Bromine water

Bromine is dissolved in water and reacted with ethene.

Equation:

Further examples of additional reactions

Addition of hydrogen halides

With hydrobromic acid; HBr (aq)

With sulphuric acid

Addition of Ethene with sulphuric acid

Note: When ethylhydrogen sulphate is hydrolysed, ethanol is formed.

In this reaction, water is added to ehylhydrogen sulphate and the mixture warmed.

Ethene with Hydrogen i.e. Hydrogenation.

Is commonly termed hydrogenation though just a typical addition reaction.

Ethene is reacted with hydrogen, under special conditions.

Conditions; moderate temperature and pressure.

Nickel catalyst/palladure catalyst.

Equation:

Application: it is used industrially in the conversion f various oils into fats e.g. in the preparation of Margarine.

Polymerization reactions.

Also called self-addition reactions

Alkanes have the ability to link together (polymerise) to though the double bond to give a molecule of larger molecular mass (polymers)

Polymers: Are very large molecules formed when 2 or more (smaller) molecules link together to form a larger unit.

Polymers have properties different form those of the original constituent manners.

Examples: Polymerisation of ethene

i) Conditions

High temperatures of about 200⁰C
High/elevated pressures of approximately 1000 atmospheres
A trace of oxygen catalyst.

ii) Procedure: Ethene is heated at 200⁰C and 1000 atm. Pressure over a catalyst.

iii) Observation: Sticky white substance which hardens on cooling is formed. This solid is called polythene, commonly reffered to as polythene.

Equation:

Generally

Uses of polythene

Used for the manufacture of many domestic articles (bowls, buckets, water cans, and cold water pipes) e.t.c.

Note: Polythene pipes have a great advantage over metal pipes as they can be welded quickly and do not burst in frosty weather.

Manufacture of reagent bottles, droppers, stoppers etc. since polythene is unaffected by alkalis and acids.

Test for Alkenes

– They decolourise bromine water, acidified potassium manganate VII.

i.e. These addition reactions show the presence of a double bond.

Uses of Alkenes

Manufacture of plastics, through polymerization.
Manufacture of ethanol; through hydrolysis reactions
Ripening of fruits.
Manufacture of ethan 1, 2-diol(glyco) which is used as a coolant.

ALYKYNES

Are unsaturated hydrocarbons which form a homologous series of a general formula CnH2n-2, where n = 2 or more.

The functional groups of the alkyne series is the carbon carbon tripple bond.

They also undergo addition reactions because of High unsaturation and may be polymerised like the alkenes.

Examples

Name

Molecular formula

Structural formular

Ethyne

Propyne

But-l-yne

Pent-l-yne

C2H2

C3H4

C4H6

C5H8

CH CH

CH3C CH

CH3CH2C CH

CH3(CH2)2C CH

Nomenclature of alkynes

The largest chain with the tripple carbon carbon bond forms the parent molecule.
Numbering of the carbon atoms is done such that the carbon atom with the tripple bond acquires the lowest possible number.
The substituent branch if any is named, and the compound written as a single word.

Examples

Draw the structures of the following hydrocarbons
2,2 dimethyl-but-2-yne
propyne

4,4 diethyl-hex-2-yne.

Isomerism in alkynes

Positional isomerism

Isomerism commonly occurs in alkynes due to the fact that the position of the tripple bond can be altered.

Such isomers, as usual have same molecular but different structural formulas.

Examples

i) Isomers of Butyne

Branching isomerism occurs when alkyl group is present in the molecule.

Others

Gradation in physical properties of Alkynes

Name of Alkyne

Formula

M.P/⁰C

B.P/⁰C

Density/gcm-3

Ethyne

Propyne

Butyne

Pent-l-yne

Hex-l-yne

HC CH

CH3 CH

CH3CH2CC CH

CH3CH2CH2C CH

CH3(CH2)3C CH

-8108

-103

-122

-90

-132

-83.6

-23.2

8.1

39.3

–

0.695

0.716

Preparation and chemical properties of Ethyne.

Preparation
i) Apparatus

ii) Procedure:

Water is dripped over calcium carbide and is collected over water.

Reasons for over-water collection:-

Its insoluble in water
Unreactive and lighter than water.

Conditions
Room temperature

Equation

Properties of Ethyne
i) Physical

Colourless gas, with a sweet smell when pure.
Insoluble in water and can thus be collected over water.
Solubility is higher in non- solvents * Draw table on physical properties.

Chemical properties

Combustion

Ethyne burns with a luminous and very sooty flame; due to the high percentage of carbon content, some of which remains unburnt.

In excess air, the products are carbon dioxide and water.

Equation

In limited air, they undergoes incomplete combustion, forming a mixture of carbon and carbon dioxide.

Note: A sooty flame observed when a hydrocarbon burns in air is an indication of unsaturation in the hydrocarbon.

Addition reactions

During addition reactions of alkynes (Ethyne) the tripple bond breaks in stages;

Reaction with hydrogen (Hydrogenation)

Note: This reaction occurs under special conditions i.e. – Presence of a Nickel catalyst

Temperatures about 200⁰C

Reaction with halogens
i) Reaction with chlorine

With Bromine gas

The red-brown bromine vapour is decoloursed.

Equations

Note: In this reaction Cl2 should be diluted with an inert.

Reason: Pure Cl2 reacts explosively with Ethyne, forming carbon and HCl.

Reaction with Bromine liquid

When Ethyne reacts with Bromine water, the reddish brown colour of bromine water disappears.

Reason: The Bromine adds to the carbon tripple bond leading to the of 1;1,2,2 tetrabromoethane.

Equation

E; Ethyne also decolorizes acidified potassium permanganate.

Note: Decolourization of acidified potassium permanganate and bromine water are tests for unsaturated hydrocarbons (alkanes and alkynes)

Reaction with hydrogen halides

Uses of Ethyne

Industrial manufacture of compounds like adhesives and plastics
Its used in the oxy-acetylene flame which is used for welding and cutting metals.

Universities and Colleges Portal

Laikipia East TVC Courses, Contacts, Fees, Location and How To Apply

October 5, 2025 Maverick John Leave a comment

Laikipia East Technical and Vocational College (TVC) is located in Laikipia County, specifically at Marina trading center in Ngobi ward. It was established by the Kenyan government and opened its doors to its first batch of students in September 2018.

The college was built at an approximate cost of Shs. 50 million and is expected to eventually accommodate up to 2000 students. It specializes in electrical engineering and computers and offers both Diploma and Certificate courses. It is one of three technical training institutes initiated by the Laikipia County government

The institution is registered with the Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) Authority and is listed on the KUCCPS website. It is a government TVET institution under the Ministry of Education, State Department for Technical, Vocational Education and Training.

Laikipia East Technical and Vocational College Contacts

To contact Laikipia East Technical and Vocational College (Laikipia East TVC), you can use the following methods: Phone: +254 721 356 821 or +254 713 380 692, Email: info@laikipiaeasttvc.ac.ke or laikipiaetvc@gmail.com, or Mail: P.O. Box 14-10129 Mugunda according to the college’s website. The college is located along the Nyeri-Nyahururu Highway at Marina Trading Center.

Phone: +254 721 356 821 Mobile: +254 713 380 692
Email: info@laikipiaeasttvc.ac

Laikipia East Technical and Vocational College, TVC, Approved Certificate Programs

Craft In Building Technology
Certificate In Catering And Accommodation Management
Certificate In Computerized Secretarial Studies
Craft In Cooperative Management
Certificate In Electrical And Electronic Engineering
Artisan In Electrical Installation
Craft In Fashion Design And Clothing
Certificate In Food And Beverage Management
Craft Certificate In Human Resource Management
Certificate In Information Communication Technology
Certificate In Building Technology
Certificate In Plumbing
Craft In Secretarial Studies
Certificate In Social Work And Community Development
Certificate In Supply Chain Management
Certificate In Tourism Management

Laikipia East TVC Approved Diploma Programs

Diploma In Social Work & Community Development
Diploma In Food And Beverage Management
Diploma In Supply Chain Management
Diploma In Business Management
Diploma In Information Communication Technology (Ict)
Diploma In Human Resource Management
Diploma Building Technology
Diploma In Fashion Design & Clothing Technology
Diploma In Accountancy
Diploma In Catering & Accommodation Management
Diploma In Building Technology
Diploma In Tourism Management
Diploma In Cooperative Management
Diploma In Secretarial Studies
Diploma In Electrical & Electronic Engineering (Power)
Diploma In Information Communication Technology
Diploma In Computerized Secretarial Studies

Laikipia East Technical and Vocational College Kuccps Approved Courses

The College offers the following Courses that are approved by the Kenya Universities and Colleges Central Placement Service (KUCCPS):

Laikipia East Technical and Vocational College (TVC) Fees Structure

At Laikipia East Technical and Vocational College (TVC), the total annual fees for regular courses is Ksh 67,189. However, the government provides a scholarship of Ksh 21,500 and HELB (Higher Education Loans Board) can potentially cover Ksh 32,250, meaning the parent/guardian is responsible for the remaining Ksh 13,438.

Here’s a breakdown:

Total Annual Fees: Ksh 67,189
Government Scholarship: Ksh 21,500
HELB Loan: Ksh 32,250 (if applicable)
Parent/Guardian Fees: Ksh 13,438

Laikipia East TVC Courses Duration.

TVC (Technical and Vocational College) courses vary in duration, depending on the specific course. Generally, Craft Certificates take 1-2 years, while Diplomas can range from 2-3 years. Some short courses, like welding or baking, may be completed in a few weeks or months.

Examples of course durations:

Craft Certificate:
Building Technology: 1 year 6 months (Module I & II)

Carpentry & Joinery: 2 years

Plumbing: 3 months

Welding & Fabrication: 8 weeks
Diploma:
Building Construction Technology: 3 years

Human Resource Management: 3 years

General Agriculture: 3 years

Automotive Engineering: 3 years
Short Courses:
Welding/Fabrication: 12 weeks

MIG Welding: 8 weeks

TIG Welding: 8 weeks

Cake Baking and Decoration: 2 months

Factors affecting course duration:

Level of the course:Certificates are typically shorter than Diplomas.
Specific trade or field:Different trades may have varying durations.
College or institution:Some institutions may have slightly different program structures.
Intake schedule:Some courses have specific intake periods (e.g., January, May, September).

Check the specific Course fees details here:

Laikipia East TVC online application

Applications and placement to the TVC are done through the Kenya Universities and Colleges Central Placement Service (KUCCPS) Portal. To apply for placement through KUCCPS, you need to access the student’s portal on the KUCCPS website and log in using your KCSE index number, year of examination, and password. Once logged in, you can explore available programs and institutions, and then submit your preferred choices. Start your application by clicking on this Kuccps Student Portal Link.

You can also apply directly to the institution for admission.

The Minimum requirements are: C- for diplomas, D+ for craft certificates and E for artisan courses. But, different Courses may have more specific requirements.

Laikipia East Technical and Vocational College Admission Letter.

You can get the admission letter to the TTI by visiting the Kuccps Student Portal, Instituion’s Website and by paying a physical visit to the Tertiary institution. But, the best, quickest and most convenient application method is via the Kuccps portal.

All Technical Training Institute Diploma, Certificate and Artisan Courses Fees

Download the free pdf documents below that have complete details of all TTI Courses and their Fees per year:

TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL COLLEGE FEES STRUCTURE

The annual tuition fee for TVET courses at many Kenyan Technical and Vocational Colleges (TVCs) is Ksh 67,189. This includes a government capitation of Ksh 30,000 per trainee, leaving a balance of Ksh 26,420 to be paid by the student, which can be paid in installments. Additionally, students may be eligible for a HELB loan of Ksh 40,000. Other potential costs include KUCCPS registration fees, industrial attachment fees, and examination fees.

TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL COLLEGE FEES STRUCTURE

GOVERNMENT SCHOLARSHIP AND LOAN FOR TVC STUDENTS.

Following your placement, you are eligible for a Government scholarship, Loan and Bursary to assist with your educational expenses. If you need Government financial support, you MUST make an application for consideration through the official website www.hef.co.ke. In the case Government scholarship, Loan and bursary do not cover the entire cost of your program, the deficit will be met by your parent/guardian.

REQUIREMENTS FOR APPLICATION FOR TVC FUNDING

1. A valid email address
2. Valid telephone number (must be registered in your name to apply for a loan)
3. KCPE and KCSE index numbers and year of examination
4. Passport size photo
5. Copy of your National ID (for loan application)
6. College/University admission letter
7. Your parents’ registered telephone number
8. Your parents’ national ID number
9. Death certificate if any of your parents is deceased.
10. Your birth certificate.
11. Two guarantors’ (Can be your parents) ID numbers and registered telephone

DETAILS ON ALL TTI/ TVC INSTITUTIONS.

Ziwa Technical Training Institute Courses, Contacts, Fees, Location

Wote Technical Training Institute Courses, Contacts, Fees, Location

Tseikuru Technical Training Institute Courses, Contacts, Fees, Location

Thika Technical Training Institute Courses, Contacts, Fees, Location

Sotik Technical Training Institute Courses, Contacts, Fees, Location

Sot Technical Training Institute Courses, Contacts, Fees, Location

VTC Sikri Technical Training Institute Courses, Contacts, Fees, Location

Siala Technical Training Institute Courses, Contacts, Fees, Location

Shamberere Technical Training Institute Courses, Contacts, Fees, Location

Riragia Technical Training Institute Courses, Contacts, Fees, Location

Rift Valley Technical Training Institute Courses, Contacts, Fees, Location

PC Kinyanjui Technical Training Institute Courses, Contacts, Fees, Location

Ol’lessos Technical Training Institute Courses, Contacts, Fees, Location

Nkabune Technical Training Institute Courses, Contacts, Fees, Location

Njoro Technical Training Institute Courses, Contacts, Fees, Location

Ngeria Technical Training Institute Courses, Contacts, Fees, Location

Narok West Technical Training Institute Courses, Contacts, Fees, Location

Nairobi Technical Training Institute Courses, Contacts, Fees, Location

Musakasa Technical Training Institute Courses, Contacts, Fees, Location

Murang’a Technical Training Institute Courses, Contacts, Fees, Location

Mukurweini Technical Training Institute Courses, Contacts, Fees, Location

Mukiria Technical Training Institute Courses, Contacts, Fees, Location

Mitunguu Technical Training Institute Courses, Contacts, Fees, Location

Merti Technical Training Institute Courses, Contacts, Fees, Location

Matili Technical Training Institute Courses, Contacts, Fees, Location

Mathenge Technical Training Institute Courses, Contacts, Fees, Location

Godoma TTI TTI KUCCPS Courses, Requirements, Fees, Duration and Career Opportunities

Mathenge TTI Admissions: Download Kuccps Admission Letters

Karen TTI Kuccps Course List, Requirements, Fees, Duration and Job Opportunities

Emining TTI KUCCPS Courses, Requirements, Fees, Duration and Career Opportunities

Gitwebe TTI KUCCPS Courses, Requirements, Fees, Duration and Career Opportunities

kARUMO TTI Kuccps Course List, Requirements, Fees, Duration & Job Opportunities

Kaelo TTI Kuccps Courses, Fees, Duration, Requirements, Application Form & Job Opportunities

Bumbe TTI Latest Kuccps Course List, Requirements, Fees & Duration

Chepalungu TTI Latest Kuccps Course List, Requirements, Fees & Duration

Bushiangala TTI Latest Kuccps Course List, Requirements, Fees & Duration

Gitwebe TTI Latest Kuccps Course List, Requirements, Fees & Duration

Godoma TTI Latest Kuccps Course List, Requirements, Fees & Duration

Bureti TTI Latest Kuccps Course List, Requirements, Fees & Duration

Katine TTI Kuccps Course List, Requirements, Fees, Duration & Job Opportunities

Endebess TTI College Latest Kuccps Course List, Requirements, Fees & Duration

Emurua Dikirr TTI College Latest Kuccps Course List, Requirements, Fees & Duration

Ekerubo Gietai TTI College Latest Kuccps Course List, Requirements, Fees & Duration

Kuccps Final Course List for Ahmed Shahame Mwidani TTI; Course Codes, Fees, Requirements, Cluster Cut Off Points

Masai Technical Training Institute Courses, Contacts, Fees, Location

Mandera Technical Training Institute Courses, Contacts, Fees, Location

Koshin Technical Training Institute Courses, Contacts, Fees, Location

Konoin Technical Training Institute Courses, Contacts, Fees, Location

Kitelakapel Technical Training Institute Courses, Contacts, Fees, Location

Kiirua Technical Training Institute Courses, Contacts, Fees, Location

Kigumo Technical Training Institute Courses, Contacts, Fees, Location

Keroka Technical Training Institute Courses, Contacts, Fees, Location

Karumo Technical Training Institute Courses, Contacts, Fees, Location

Karen Technical Training Institute Courses, Contacts, Fees, Location

Kapchepkor Technical Training Institute Courses, Contacts, Fees, Location

Kaelo Technical Training Institute Courses, Contacts, Fees, Location

Godoma Technical Training Institute Courses, Contacts, Fees, Location

Gitwebe Technical Training Institute Courses, Contacts, Fees, Location

Endebess Technical Training Institute Courses, Contacts, Fees, Location

Emurua Dikirr Technical Training Institute Courses, Contacts, Fees, Location

Emining Technical Training Institute Courses, Contacts, Fees, Location

Chepalungu Technical Training Institute Courses, Contacts, Fees, Location

Bushiangala Technical Training Institute Courses, Contacts, Fees, Location

Bureti Technical Training Institute Courses, Contacts, Fees, Location

Bumbe Technical Training Institute Courses, Contacts, Fees, Location

Bondo Technical Training Institute Courses, Contacts, Fees, Location

Aldai Technical Training Institute Courses, Contacts, Fees, Location

Ahmed Shahame Mwidani Technical Training Institute Courses, Contacts, Fees, Location

KMTC CAMPUSES.

Kitale KMTC Admission, Courses, Fees, Location, Contacts

Kisumu KMTC Admission, Courses, Fees, Location, Contacts

Kisii KMTC Location, Admission, Courses, Fees Structure, Contact Details

KMTC list of all Campuses: Location, Admission, Courses, Fees Structure, Contact Details

Kilifi KMTC Campus Admission, Courses, Fees, Location, Contacts

Karuri KMTC Campus Location, Admission, Courses, Fees Structure, Contact Details

Karen KMTC Location, Admission, Courses, Fees Structure, Contact Details

Kaptumo KMTC Admission, Courses, Fees, Location, Contacts

Kapenguria KMTC Location, Admission, Courses, Fees Structure, Contact Details

Kapkatet KMTC Admission, Courses, Fees, Location, Contacts

Kangundo KMTC Location, Admission, Courses, Fees Structure, Contact Details

Kakamega KMTC Admission, Courses, Fees, Location, Contacts

Kabarnet KMTC Admission, Courses, Fees, Location, Contacts

Iten KMTC Admission, Courses, Fees, Location, Contacts

Isiolo KMTC Location, Admission, Courses, Fees Structure, Contact Details

Imenti KMTC Location, Admission, Courses, Fees Structure, Contact Details

Homabay KMTC Location, Admission, Courses, Fees Structure, Contact Details

Gatundu KMTC Location, Admission, Courses, Fees Structure, and Contact Details

Garissa KMTC Location, Admission, Courses, Fees Structure, Contact Details

Embu KMTC Location, Admission, Courses, Fees Structure, Contact Details

Eldoret KMTC Location, Admission, Courses, Fees Structure, Contact Details

Chwele KMTC Location, Admission, Courses, Fees Structure, Contact Details

Chuka KMTC Location, Admission, Courses, Fees Structure, Contact Details

Chemolingot KMTC Location, Admission, Courses, Fees Structure, Contact Details

Busia KMTC Location, Admission, Courses, Fees Structure, Contact Details

Bungoma KMTC Admissions, Courses, Fees, Location, Contacts

Bondo KMTC Location, Admission, Courses, Fees Structure, Contact Details

Bomet KMTC Admissions, Courses, Fees, Location, Contacts

KMTC Nyeri Campus: Courses, Fees, Location, Contacts and Programs plus Requirements

KMTC Kapenguria Campus: Courses, Fees, Location, Contacts and Programs plus Requirements

TSC News Portal

TSC Wealth Declaration Portal, Online Form, Guides

October 5, 2025 Maverick John Leave a comment

TSC Wealth Declaration Portal, Online Form, Guides

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KUCCPS News Portal

Kuccps Final Course List for Maseno University; Course Codes, Fees, Requirements, Cluster Cut Off Points

October 5, 2025 Maverick John Leave a comment

Kuccps Final Course List for Maseno University; Course Codes, Fees, Requirements, Cluster Cut Off Points

MASENO UNIVERSITY

PROGRAMMES ON OFFER FOR 2023/2024 CYCLE

#	PROGRAMME CODE	PROGRAMME NAME	INSTITUTION TYPE	YEAR 1 – PROGRAMME COST		2023/2024 CUTOFF	2020 CUTOFF
1	1229101	BACHELOR OF ARTS (WITH IT)	PUBLIC	KSH 122,400	–	22.926	26.996
2	1229107	BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (ACTUARIAL SCIENCE, WITH IT)	PUBLIC	KSH 244,800	–	31.886	30.848
3	1229108	BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY, WITH IT)	PUBLIC	KSH 244,800	–	16.787	25.681
4	1229109	BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES, WITH IT)	PUBLIC	KSH 244,800	–	27.259	28.604
5	1229112	BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (BIOCHEMISTRY, WITH IT)	PUBLIC	KSH 275,400	–	28.679	28.674
6	1229114	BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY, WITH IT)	PUBLIC	KSH 244,800	–	16.787	25.029
7	1229115	BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (COMPUTER SCIENCE)	PUBLIC	KSH 306,000	–	36.045	36.506
8	1229120	BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (BASIC SCIENCE, WITH IT)	PUBLIC	KSH 224,400	–	17.459	16.791
9	1229129	BACHELOR OF PHARMACY, WITH IT	PUBLIC	KSH 428,400	–	42.847	41.636
10	1229131	BACHELOR OF MEDICINE AND BACHELOR OF SURGERY (WITH IT)	PUBLIC	KSH 612,000	–	44.143	44.083
11	1229132	BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (NURSING, WITH IT)	PUBLIC	KSH 275,400	–	41.590	41.175
12	1229134	BACHELOR OF LAWS (LL.B.), WITH IT	PUBLIC	KSH 183,600	–	–	–
13	1229135	BACHELOR OF EDUCATION (ARTS, WITH IT)	PUBLIC	KSH 183,600	–	30.514	31.178
14	1229136	BACHELOR OF ARTS (CRIMINOLOGY, WITH IT)	PUBLIC	KSH 153,000	–	28.711	30.756
15	1229137	BACHELOR OF EDUCATION (SCIENCE, WITH IT)	PUBLIC	KSH 244,800	–	34.932	36.089
16	1229151	BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN MARKETING MANAGEMENT, WITH IT	PUBLIC	KSH 183,600	–	22.544	22.361
17	1229153	BACHELOR OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION ( WITH IT)	PUBLIC	KSH 183,600	–	22.544	22.361
18	1229155	BACHELOR OF EDUCATION (SPECIAL NEEDS EDUCATION, WITH IT)	PUBLIC	KSH 244,800	–	29.942	32.617
19	1229158	BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY MANAGEMENT)	PUBLIC	KSH 306,000	–	29.316	30.112
20	1229161	BACHELOR OF ARTS (MUSIC, WITH IT)	PUBLIC	KSH 204,000	–	23.070	23.640
21	1229162	BACHELOR OF EDUCATION (MUSIC, WITH IT)	PUBLIC	KSH 183,600	–	22.636	24.285
22	1229164	BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (APPLIED STATISTICS, WITH IT)	PUBLIC	KSH 244,800	–	20.100	28.264
23	1229166	BACHELOR OF EDUCATION (FRENCH, WITH IT)	PUBLIC	KSH 183,600	–	22.636	28.783
24	1229170	BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (PHYSICS, WITH IT)	PUBLIC	KSH 244,800	–	17.459	22.415
25	1229179	BACHELOR OF ARTS (DRAMA AND THEATRE STUDIES, WITH IT)	PUBLIC	KSH 204,000	–	22.926	27.182
26	1229180	BACHELOR OF EDUCATION (EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION, WITH IT)	PUBLIC	KSH 183,600	–	22.636	24.504
27	1229185	BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (HORTICULTURE, WITH IT)	PUBLIC	KSH 275,400	–	17.459	16.791
28	1229187	BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (AGRIBUSINESS MANAGEMENT, WITH IT)	PUBLIC	KSH 275,400	–	17.459	16.791
29	1229189	BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT, WITH IT	PUBLIC	KSH 183,600	–	27.071	24.176
30	1229190	BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (NUTRITION AND DIETETICS, WITH IT)	PUBLIC	KSH 275,400	–	17.459	25.284
31	1229194	BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (MEDICAL LABORATORY SCIENCES, WITH IT)	PUBLIC	KSH 275,400	–	38.946	38.520
32	1229198	BACHELOR OF APPLIED ECONOMICS, WITH IT	PUBLIC	KSH 183,600	–	20.100	23.783
33	1229199	BACHELOR OF ECONOMICS AND STATISTICS, WITH IT	PUBLIC	KSH 183,600	–	24.969	30.666
34	1229208	BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (COMPUTER SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY)	PUBLIC	KSH 306,000	–	19.223	24.866
35	1229213	BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE, WITH IT)	PUBLIC	KSH 244,800	–	17.459	16.791
36	1229216	BACHELOR OF SCIENCE ( AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS, WITH IT)	PUBLIC	KSH 275,400	–	17.459	16.791
37	1229217	BACHELOR OF ARTS (TEXTILE, FASHION DESIGN AND MERCHANDISING, WITH IT)	PUBLIC	KSH 204,000	–	17.459	21.601
38	1229232	BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY)	PUBLIC	KSH 306,000	–	29.849	31.732
39	1229238	BACHELOR OF PSYCHOLOGY ( WITH IT)	PUBLIC	KSH 153,000	–	25.767	26.732
40	1229245	BACHELOR OF PROCUREMENT AND SUPPLY CHAIN MANAGEMENT	PUBLIC	KSH 183,600	–	22.544	24.880
41	1229293	BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (ANIMAL SCIENCE, WITH IT)	PUBLIC	KSH 275,400	–	17.459	16.791
42	1229295	BACHELOR OF ARTS (INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AND DIPLOMACY ,WITH IT)	PUBLIC	KSH 153,000	–	26.452	29.376
43	1229299	BACHELOR OF BUSINESS ENTREPRENEURSHIP , WITH IT	PUBLIC	KSH 183,600	–	22.544	22.361
44	1229303	BACHELOR OF ARTS (DEVELOPMENT STUDIES, WITH IT)	PUBLIC	KSH 153,000	–	22.926	24.466
45	1229309	BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (MATHEMATICS & COMPUTER SCIENCE)	PUBLIC	KSH 244,800	–	19.223	27.983
46	1229317	BACHELOR OF ARTS IN DESIGN (INTERIOR DESIGN, WITH IT)	PUBLIC	KSH 204,000	–	23.168	27.424
47	1229324	BACHELOR OF ARTS (KISWAHILI, WITH IT)	PUBLIC	KSH 153,000	–	22.926	30.343
48	1229362	BACHELOR OF EDUCATION (HOME SCIENCE , WITH IT)	PUBLIC	KSH 244,800	–	28.759	29.035
49	1229385	BACHELOR OF ARTS (COMMUNICATION & MEDIA TECHNOLOGY, WITH IT)	PUBLIC	KSH 204,000	–	29.350	30.026
50	1229417	BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (AGRICULTURE EDUCATION AND EXTENSION, WITH IT)	PUBLIC	KSH 306,000	–	29.557	28.831
51	1229443	BACHELOR OF ARTS (RELIGION, WITH IT)	PUBLIC	KSH 122,400	–	19.956	27.108
52	1229509	BACHELOR OF ARTS (FINE ART, WITH IT)	PUBLIC	KSH 204,000	–	22.926	22.210
53	1229515	BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (FISHERIES AND NATURAL RESOURCES, WITH IT)	PUBLIC	KSH 275,400	–	17.459	16.791
54	1229523	BACHELOR OF ARTS (HISTORY AND ARCHAEOLOGY, WITH IT)	PUBLIC	KSH 122,400	–	22.627	27.435
55	1229524	BACHELOR OF ARTS (LITERATURE, WITH IT)	PUBLIC	KSH 122,400	–	22.926	27.685
56	1229540	BACHELOR OF ECONOMICS AND FINANCE, WITH IT	PUBLIC	KSH 183,600	–	23.849	25.956
57	1229543	BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (HEALTH RECORDS AND INFORMATION MANAGEMENT, WITH IT)	PUBLIC	KSH 275,400	–	25.782	28.195
58	1229544	BACHELOR OF ARTS (DISASTER MANAGEMENT, WITH IT)	PUBLIC	KSH 153,000	–	22.926	26.746
59	1229551	BACHELOR OF ARTS ( POLITICAL SCIENCE, WITH IT)	PUBLIC	KSH 122,400	–	22.926	25.456
60	1229588	BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (MATHEMATICS & ECONOMICS, WITH IT	PUBLIC	KSH 244,800	–	20.100	25.022
61	1229590	BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (CLIMATE CHANGE AND DEVELOPMENT, WITH IT)	PUBLIC	KSH 244,800	–	–	–
62	1229591	BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (MEDICAL BIOTECHNOLOGY, WITH IT)	PUBLIC	KSH 275,400	–	26.516	27.737
63	1229593	BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (AGRONOMY, WITH IT)	PUBLIC	KSH 275,400	–	17.459	16.791
64	1229606	BACHELOR OF ARTS (SOCIOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY, WITH IT)	PUBLIC	KSH 153,000	–	22.926	24.841
65	1229609	BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (MATHEMATICS & BUSINESS STUDIES, WITH IT)	PUBLIC	KSH 244,800	–	20.100	20.048
66	1229612	BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (INFORMATION SYSTEMS)	PUBLIC	KSH 306,000	–	22.544	22.361
67	1229621	BACHELOR OF ARTS (LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION, WITH IT)	PUBLIC	KSH 153,000	–	22.926	25.843
68	1229646	BACHELOR OF ARTS (ECONOMICS, WITH IT)	PUBLIC	KSH 183,600	–	20.100	20.048
69	1229654	BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (ACCOUNTING & FINANCE, WITH IT)	PUBLIC	KSH 183,600	–	28.099	30.596
70	1229684	BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN TRAVEL AND TOURISM MANAGEMENT	PUBLIC	KSH 204,000	–	26.028	22.361
71	1229692	BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (GEOGRAPHY AND NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT, WITH IT)	PUBLIC	KSH 224,400	–	26.022	16.791
72	1229732	BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (PUBLIC HEALTH, WITH IT)	PUBLIC	KSH 275,400	–	32.999	33.142
73	1229765	BACHELOR OF ARTS (URBAN AND REGIONAL PLANNING, WITH IT)	PUBLIC	KSH 306,000	–	19.039	28.708
74	1229819	BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (GEOSPATIAL INFORMATION SCIENCE, WITH IT)	PUBLIC	KSH 244,800	–	17.802	26.403

KUCCPS News Portal

Dr Daniel Wako Murende TVC Kuccps Courses, Fees, Requirements, Duration & Career Opportunities

October 5, 2025 Maverick John Leave a comment

Dr Daniel Wako Murende TVC Kuccps Courses, Fees, Requirements, Duration & Career Opportunities

DR. DANIEL WAKO MURENDE TECHNICAL & VOCATIONAL COLLEGE

PROGRAMMES ON OFFER FOR 2023/2024 CYCLE

#	PROGRAMME CODE	PROGRAMME NAME	INSTITUTION TYPE	YEAR 1 – PROGRAMME COST	2022 CUTOFF	2021 CUTOFF	2020 CUTOFF
1	4160552	DIPLOMA IN SOCIAL WORK & COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT	MINISTRY OF EDUCATION	KSH 67,189	–	–	–
2	4160555	DIPLOMA IN SALES & MARKETING	MINISTRY OF EDUCATION	KSH 67,189	–	–	–
3	4160556	DIPLOMA IN FOOD AND BEVERAGE	MINISTRY OF EDUCATION	KSH 67,189	–	–	–
4	4160557	DIPLOMA IN FASHION DESIGN & CLOTHING TECHNOLOGY	MINISTRY OF EDUCATION	KSH 67,189	–	–	–
5	4160706	DIPLOMA IN BUILDING AND CIVIL ENGINEERING	MINISTRY OF EDUCATION	KSH 67,189	–	–	–
6	4160722	DIPLOMA IN AGRICULTURE	MINISTRY OF EDUCATION	KSH 67,189	–	–	–
7	4160746	DIPLOMA IN IN SUPPLY CHAIN MANAGEMENT	MINISTRY OF EDUCATION	KSH 67,189	–	–	–
8	4160752	CERTIFICATE IN AGRICULTURE	MINISTRY OF EDUCATION	KSH 67,189	–	–	–
9	4160755	DIPLOMA IN HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT	MINISTRY OF EDUCATION	KSH 67,189	–	–	–
10	4160758	DIPLOMA IN INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY (ICT)	MINISTRY OF EDUCATION	KSH 67,189	–	–	–
11	4160774	CERTIFICATE IN BUILDING TECHNOLOGY	MINISTRY OF EDUCATION	KSH 67,189	–	–	–
12	4160798	CERTIFICATE IN INFORMATION COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY (ICT)	MINISTRY OF EDUCATION	KSH 67,189	–	–	–
13	4160848	CERTIFICATE IN FASHION DESIGN AND GARMENT MAKING	MINISTRY OF EDUCATION	KSH 67,189	–	–	–
14	4160870	CERTIFICATE IN FOOD AND BEVERAGE	MINISTRY OF EDUCATION	KSH 67,189	–	–	–
15	4160876	DIPLOMA IN BUILDING TECHNOLOGY	MINISTRY OF EDUCATION	KSH 67,189	–	–	–
16	4160881	CRAFT IN FOOD PROCESSING TECHNOLOGY	MINISTRY OF EDUCATION	KSH 67,189	–	–	–
17	4160888	CRAFT IN HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT	MINISTRY OF EDUCATION	KSH 67,189	–	–	–
18	4160895	DIPLOMA IN WATER AND SANITATION ENGINEERING – OLD PROGRAMME	MINISTRY OF EDUCATION	KSH 67,189	–	–	–
19	4160901	DIPLOMA IN SECRETARIAL STUDIES	MINISTRY OF EDUCATION	KSH 67,189	–	–	–
20	4160935	CERTIFICATE IN PLUMBING	MINISTRY OF EDUCATION	KSH 67,189	–	–	–
21	4160937	CRAFT CERTIFICATE IN WATER AND SANITATION	MINISTRY OF EDUCATION	KSH 67,189	–	–	–
22	4160949	CRAFT IN SINGLE AND GROUP SECRETARIAL STUDIES	MINISTRY OF EDUCATION	KSH 67,189	–	–	–
23	4160956	CRAFT IN SOCIAL WORK AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT	MINISTRY OF EDUCATION	KSH 67,189	–	–	–
24	4160957	CRAFT IN SUPPLY CHAIN MANAGEMENT	MINISTRY OF EDUCATION	KSH 67,189	–	–	–
25	4160A02	ARTISAN IN MASONRY	MINISTRY OF EDUCATION	KSH 67,189	–	–	–
26	4160A03	ARTISAN FASHION DESIGN AND GARMENT MAKING	MINISTRY OF EDUCATION	KSH 67,189	–	–	–
27	4160A67	ARTISAN IN PLUMBING	MINISTRY OF EDUCATION	KSH 67,189	–	–	–
28	4160A90	ARTISAN FOOD AND BEVERAGE	MINISTRY OF EDUCATION	KSH 67,189	–	–	–
29	4160C26	DIPLOMA IN WATER AND SANITATION ENGINEERING	MINISTRY OF EDUCATION	KSH 67,189	–	–	–

NHIF and Medical Schemes

Nyandarua County NHIF Latest List of Approved Facilities/ Hospitals: Location, Contacts, Services, Hospital Type and Code

October 5, 2025 Maverick John Leave a comment

Nyandarua County NHIF Latest List of Approved Facilities/ Hospitals: Location, Contacts, Services, Hospital Type and Code

List of Government/ Public Hospitals

Hospital Code	Category	Hospital Name	County Name	Hospital Level
2229167	G	J.M.KARIUKI(OL KALOU)DISTRICT HOSPITAL	NYANDARUA	4
0018408	G	WANJOHI HEALTH CENTRE	NYANDARUA	3
00181171	G	MANUNGA HEALTH CENTRE	NYANDARUA	3
22291174	G	NDARAGWA HEALTH CENTRE	NYANDARUA	2
22291175	G	BAMBOO HEALTH CENTRE	NYANDARUA	3
22291178	G	NGANO HEALTH CENTRE	NYANDARUA	2
22291293	G	KARANGATHA HEALTH CENTRE	NYANDARUA	3
22291294	G	HENI HEALTH CENTRE	NYANDARUA	3
22291295	G	NDEMI HEALTH CENTRE	NYANDARUA	3
00181916	G	URUKU DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
00131867	G	SUBUKU DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
00131816	G	KAHEMBE DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
00181927	G	LESHAU PONDO HEALTH CENTRE	NYANDARUA	3
00181928	G	SHAMATA HEALTH CENTRE	NYANDARUA	3
22292017	G	NANDARASI DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22292031	G	SILIBWET HEALTH CENTRE	NYANDARUA	2
22292026	G	OLDMAWINGO HEALTH CENTRE	NYANDARUA	3
22291971	G	BAARI HEALTH CENTRE	NYANDARUA	3
22291999	G	KASUKU HEALTH CENTRE	NYANDARUA	3
22292039	G	WERU HEALTH CENTRE	NYANDARUA	2
22291994	G	KAIMBAGA DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22291984	G	GETABUSH HEALTH CENTRE	NYANDARUA	3
00182014	G	MURUNGARU HEALTH CENTRE	NYANDARUA	3
22292019	G	NGORIKA HEALTH CENTRE	NYANDARUA	3
22292082	G	GETA FOREST DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22292067	G	TURASHA DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22295862	G	KAIMBAGA HEALTH CENTRE	NYANDARUA	2
22295863	G	MUKINDU DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22295864	G	KANJUIRI DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22295865	G	RURII DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22295866	G	BEYOND ZERO CLINIC	NYANDARUA	2
22295867	G	TARUSHA DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22295868	G	KIAMBOGO DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22295869	G	LERESHWA DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22295870	G	GATONDO DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22295871	G	GATIMU HEALTH CENTRE	NYANDARUA	2
22295872	G	HUHO-INI DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22295873	G	OLBOLOSAT DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22295874	G	CHAMUKA DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22295875	G	MUNYAKA DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22295876	G	RWANYAMBO DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22295877	G	MUKUNGI DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22295878	G	MUTARAKWA DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22295879	G	GATHARA DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22295880	G	MIKARO DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22295881	G	KWAMBEKENYA DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22295882	G	KITOGO DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22295883	G	HARAKA DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22295884	G	GITHABAI DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22295885	G	KAHURU DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22295887	G	SHAURI HEALTH CENTRE	NYANDARUA	3
22295888	G	PESI DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22295889	G	NDIVAI DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22295890	G	KIRIMA DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22295891	G	KIRIOGO DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22295892	G	MBUYU DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22295893	G	MASTOO DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22295895	G	KAMIRURI DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22206951	G	KIMATHI DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22297913	G	AMAZING GRACE M CLINIC	NYANDARUA
22297914	G	BEYOND ZERO NYANDARUA	NYANDARUA
22297916	G	KAMUCHEGE DISPENSARY (MIRANGINE)	NYANDARUA	2
22297917	G	CAPTAIN DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22297918	G	KENTON DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22297920	G	KIBURUTI DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22297921	G	KIHUHO MILANGINE DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22297923	G	KIRIOGO DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22297924	G	KOINANGE DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22297925	G	MIKEU DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22297927	G	NDUNYU NJERU DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22297928	G	NIST DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22297929	G	NYANDARUA PRISONS DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22297931	G	SHALOM DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22297932	G	TUMAINI NATIONAL YOUTH SERVICE DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22298195	G	MAINA AND MWANGI HEALTH CENTRE	NYANDARUA	3A
22298197	G	MUMUI DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22298644	G	TUMAINI HEALTH CENTRE	NYANDARUA	3
222915953	G	KIANJOGU DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
222915944	G	MUNORU DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
222915945	G	CHARAGITA DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
222915946	G	KANGUU DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
222915947	G	KIHUHA DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
222915948	G	MAKARA DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
222915949	G	KARAMPTONI DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
222915950	G	MATURA DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
222915951	G	GATHIGIRA DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
0018274	G	ENGINEER DISTRICT HOSPITAL	NYANDARUA	4
22291169	G	NJABINI HEALTH CENTRE	NYANDARUA	3
22291177	G	MIRANGINE HEALTH CENTRE	NYANDARUA	2
22295886	G	SUBUKU HEALTH CENTRE	NYANDARUA	3
22295894	G	KAHEMBE HEALTH CENTRE	NYANDARUA	2
77706289	G	MUMUI DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22297915	G	KAHURU DISPENSARY (NYANDARUA SOUTH)	NYANDARUA	2
22297919	G	KIAMBOGO DISPENSARY (NYANDARUA SOUTH)	NYANDARUA	2
22297922	G	KIRIMA DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22297926	G	NDIVAI DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22297930	G	OLD MAWINGU HEALTH CENTRE	NYANDARUA	3
33015987	G	BAR SURI HEALTH CENTRE	NYANDARUA	3A
333015988	G	OMIA DIERE DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2

List of Private Hospitals

Hospital Code	Category	Hospital Name	County Name	Hospital Level
22291987	P	GLOBE MEDICAL CENTRE	NYANDARUA	3B
22296355	P	BLISS GVS HEALTHCARE LIMITED OL-KALAU	NYANDARUA	2
222914550	P	THE PINE HOSPITAL LIMITED	NYANDARUA	4

List of Mission Hospitals

Hospital Code	Category	Hospital Name	County Name	Hospital Level
22291176	M	FR BALDO CATHOLIC DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
2229181	M	NORTH KINANGOP CATHOLIC HOSPITAL	NYANDARUA	5
22291524	M	OL-JOROOROK CATHOLIC DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2

List of All Hospitals

Hospital Code	Category	Hospital Name	County Name	Hospital Level
2229167	G	J.M.KARIUKI(OL KALOU)DISTRICT HOSPITAL	NYANDARUA	4
0018408	G	WANJOHI HEALTH CENTRE	NYANDARUA	3
00181171	G	MANUNGA HEALTH CENTRE	NYANDARUA	3
22291174	G	NDARAGWA HEALTH CENTRE	NYANDARUA	2
22291175	G	BAMBOO HEALTH CENTRE	NYANDARUA	3
22291176	M	FR BALDO CATHOLIC DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22291178	G	NGANO HEALTH CENTRE	NYANDARUA	2
22291293	G	KARANGATHA HEALTH CENTRE	NYANDARUA	3
22291294	G	HENI HEALTH CENTRE	NYANDARUA	3
22291295	G	NDEMI HEALTH CENTRE	NYANDARUA	3
2229181	M	NORTH KINANGOP CATHOLIC HOSPITAL	NYANDARUA	5
00181916	G	URUKU DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
00131867	G	SUBUKU DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
00131816	G	KAHEMBE DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
00181927	G	LESHAU PONDO HEALTH CENTRE	NYANDARUA	3
00181928	G	SHAMATA HEALTH CENTRE	NYANDARUA	3
22291524	M	OL-JOROOROK CATHOLIC DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22292017	G	NANDARASI DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22292031	G	SILIBWET HEALTH CENTRE	NYANDARUA	2
22292026	G	OLDMAWINGO HEALTH CENTRE	NYANDARUA	3
22291987	P	GLOBE MEDICAL CENTRE	NYANDARUA	3B
22291971	G	BAARI HEALTH CENTRE	NYANDARUA	3
22291999	G	KASUKU HEALTH CENTRE	NYANDARUA	3
22292039	G	WERU HEALTH CENTRE	NYANDARUA	2
22291994	G	KAIMBAGA DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22291984	G	GETABUSH HEALTH CENTRE	NYANDARUA	3
00182014	G	MURUNGARU HEALTH CENTRE	NYANDARUA	3
22292019	G	NGORIKA HEALTH CENTRE	NYANDARUA	3
22292082	G	GETA FOREST DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22292067	G	TURASHA DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22295862	G	KAIMBAGA HEALTH CENTRE	NYANDARUA	2
22295863	G	MUKINDU DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22295864	G	KANJUIRI DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22295865	G	RURII DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22295866	G	BEYOND ZERO CLINIC	NYANDARUA	2
22295867	G	TARUSHA DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22295868	G	KIAMBOGO DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22295869	G	LERESHWA DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22295870	G	GATONDO DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22295871	G	GATIMU HEALTH CENTRE	NYANDARUA	2
22295872	G	HUHO-INI DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22295873	G	OLBOLOSAT DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22295874	G	CHAMUKA DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22295875	G	MUNYAKA DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22295876	G	RWANYAMBO DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22295877	G	MUKUNGI DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22295878	G	MUTARAKWA DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22295879	G	GATHARA DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22295880	G	MIKARO DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22295881	G	KWAMBEKENYA DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22295882	G	KITOGO DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22295883	G	HARAKA DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22295884	G	GITHABAI DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22295885	G	KAHURU DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22295887	G	SHAURI HEALTH CENTRE	NYANDARUA	3
22295888	G	PESI DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22295889	G	NDIVAI DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22295890	G	KIRIMA DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22295891	G	KIRIOGO DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22295892	G	MBUYU DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22295893	G	MASTOO DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22295895	G	KAMIRURI DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22206951	G	KIMATHI DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22296355	P	BLISS GVS HEALTHCARE LIMITED OL-KALAU	NYANDARUA	2
22297913	G	AMAZING GRACE M CLINIC	NYANDARUA
22297914	G	BEYOND ZERO NYANDARUA	NYANDARUA
22297916	G	KAMUCHEGE DISPENSARY (MIRANGINE)	NYANDARUA	2
22297917	G	CAPTAIN DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22297918	G	KENTON DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22297920	G	KIBURUTI DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22297921	G	KIHUHO MILANGINE DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22297923	G	KIRIOGO DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22297924	G	KOINANGE DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22297925	G	MIKEU DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22297927	G	NDUNYU NJERU DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22297928	G	NIST DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22297929	G	NYANDARUA PRISONS DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22297931	G	SHALOM DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22297932	G	TUMAINI NATIONAL YOUTH SERVICE DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22298195	G	MAINA AND MWANGI HEALTH CENTRE	NYANDARUA	3A
22298197	G	MUMUI DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22298644	G	TUMAINI HEALTH CENTRE	NYANDARUA	3
222914550	P	THE PINE HOSPITAL LIMITED	NYANDARUA	4
222915953	G	KIANJOGU DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
222915944	G	MUNORU DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
222915945	G	CHARAGITA DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
222915946	G	KANGUU DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
222915947	G	KIHUHA DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
222915948	G	MAKARA DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
222915949	G	KARAMPTONI DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
222915950	G	MATURA DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
222915951	G	GATHIGIRA DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
0018274	G	ENGINEER DISTRICT HOSPITAL	NYANDARUA	4
22291169	G	NJABINI HEALTH CENTRE	NYANDARUA	3
22291177	G	MIRANGINE HEALTH CENTRE	NYANDARUA	2
22295886	G	SUBUKU HEALTH CENTRE	NYANDARUA	3
22295894	G	KAHEMBE HEALTH CENTRE	NYANDARUA	2
77706289	G	MUMUI DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22297915	G	KAHURU DISPENSARY (NYANDARUA SOUTH)	NYANDARUA	2
22297919	G	KIAMBOGO DISPENSARY (NYANDARUA SOUTH)	NYANDARUA	2
22297922	G	KIRIMA DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22297926	G	NDIVAI DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2
22297930	G	OLD MAWINGU HEALTH CENTRE	NYANDARUA	3
33015987	G	BAR SURI HEALTH CENTRE	NYANDARUA	3A
333015988	G	OMIA DIERE DISPENSARY	NYANDARUA	2

TSC News Portal

TSC Human Resource Officers

October 5, 2025 Maverick John Leave a comment

The Teachers Service Commission, TSC, has a key department called the Human Resource Department (TSC- HR Department). The HR department is under the TSC Secretariat and is under the Human Resource Management and Development Directorate office at the head quarter.

The Commission has the HR department has decentralized units at the counties.

Duties of the County Human Resource Officer

The County Human Resource Officer is responsible to the County Director in undertaking the following duties:-

Head of the Human Resource function in the county.
Responsible for handling correspondence on all matters pertaining to terms and condition of service for teachers.
Advising the TSC County Director on all matters pertaining to human resource management and development function.

Check TSC contacts here.

Duties and Responsibilities Human Resource Officers at the head office

Maintaining output and file movement records
Verification of amendment on recruitment, appointment and promotion against the recruitment/ appointment and promotion lists
Respond to queries raised in personal files.
Effecting and executing valid third party orders.
Processing of promotions
Process pension and death gratuity claims.
Issuing retirement notices and release letters for officers on Terms of Service
Supervision of officers clerks support staff

RELATED NEWS;

Universities and Colleges Portal

Rangwe TVC Courses, Contacts, Fees, Location and How To Apply

October 5, 2025 Maverick John Leave a comment

Rangwe Technical and Vocational College (TVC) is located in Kagan Ward, Rangwe Constituency, Homa Bay County, Kenya. It was opened in September 2018 for the admission of its pioneer students. The college is situated along the Kadel-Homabay road, approximately four kilometers from Kadel Centre Market.

Rangwe Technical and Vocational College Contacts

To contact Rangwe Technical and Vocational College (TVC), you can use the following: phone number +254718035475 or email rangwetechnical@gmail.com. The college’s physical address is P.O. Box 396 – 40300, Homa Bay, Kenya.

Rangwe TVC Approved Diploma and Certificate Programs

Apply directly to the College for consideration in a number of Diploma and Certificate Courses offered at the TVC..

Rangwe Technical and Vocational College (Tvc) offers a wide range of courses in various fields, including technical, business, and vocational training. Some of the courses available include Agriculture, Automotive Engineering, Building and Construction, Electrical Engineering (Power option), Plumbing and Pipe Fitting, Food and Beverage, Social Work, ICT, Hairdressing and Beauty Therapy, Secretarial Studies, Welding and Fabrication, and Accounting and Finance.

Here’s a more detailed breakdown:

Technical Courses:

General Agriculture
Electrical & Electronic Engineering (Power)
Building Construction Technology
Automotive Engineering
Plumbing and Pipe Fitting
Welding and Fabrication

Business and Vocational Courses:

Food and Beverage
Social Work
ICT
Hairdressing and Beauty Therapy
Secretarial Studies
Accounting and Finance

The college also offers Artisan, Craft, and Diploma level courses in these areas.

Rangwe Technical and Vocational College Kuccps Approved Courses

The TVC offers the following Courses that are approved by the Kenya Universities and Colleges Central Placement Service (KUCCPS):

Rangwe Technical and Vocational College (TVC) Fees Structure

Generally, Total fees per year is Kshs 67,189 · The Government gives a capitation of Kshs. 30,000 per year per trainee.

The fees covers the following Vote heads:

Tuition (Government New funding model): KShs.39,719
Personal emoluments: 10,500
Electricity, Water, and Conservancy(W.C): KShs.3,970
Local Transport and Travel.(T.T): KShs.4,200
Resource Management and Infrastructure (M.I): KShs.4,000
Activity: 4,800

Total: KShs.67,189

Other Applicable charges

Registration(Charged once on admission): 2,000
Student ID (Charged once on admission): 500
Student welfare(Annually): 900
Caution money(Charged once on admission): 1,000
Tveta fees(Charged once on admission): 500

Total: KShs.4,900

Grand Total: KShs.72,089.

Rangwe TVC Courses Duration.

Examples of course durations:

Craft Certificate:
Building Technology: 1 year 6 months (Module I & II)

Carpentry & Joinery: 2 years

Plumbing: 3 months

Welding & Fabrication: 8 weeks
Diploma:
Building Construction Technology: 3 years

Human Resource Management: 3 years

General Agriculture: 3 years

Automotive Engineering: 3 years
Short Courses:
Welding/Fabrication: 12 weeks

MIG Welding: 8 weeks

TIG Welding: 8 weeks

Cake Baking and Decoration: 2 months

Factors affecting course duration:

Level of the course:Certificates are typically shorter than Diplomas.
Specific trade or field:Different trades may have varying durations.
College or institution:Some institutions may have slightly different program structures.
Intake schedule:Some courses have specific intake periods (e.g., January, May, September).

Check the specific Course fees details here:

Rangwe TVC online application

You can also apply directly to the institution for admission.

The Minimum requirements are: C- for diplomas, D+ for craft certificates and E for artisan courses. But, different Courses may have more specific requirements.

Rangwe Technical and Vocational college admission requirements

To qualify for any course at Nyakach Technical Training Institute, you must first meet the requirements below;

Be a Kenyan citizen and have either an Identification card or a birth certificate to prove this.
You must have completed your KSCE and received your certificate.
Have scored the required minimum grade as per the programme you are applying for.
You need a mean grade of:

C– (minus) and above for diploma courses.
D (plain) and above for craft certificate courses
D – (minus) and below for artisan certificate courses

Rangwe TVC Kuccps application procedure

After confirming that you qualify for a course at the Technical Training Institute, the second step is to apply to the TVET College. There are two ways to apply to Vocational and Training Institute; physically collect the application letter from the institution’s admission office. Apply through the Kenya Universities and Colleges Central Placement Service (KUCCPS). As this is an online application, you must carefully follow the instructions given to ensure a successful application. The process is as given below;

Log into kuccps.ac.ke.
Click on the apply now tab and choose your preferred programme.
Once a course is successfully selected, the website automatically redirects you to the student portal for KUCCPS.
Click on the log-in prompt. You will be prompted to enter your KCSE index number, year of completion, and password as previously selected.
On a successful log-in, click on institutions. Scroll through the list of available TVET colleges and select the TVC.
The screen displays the college and all the courses on offer for that academic year.
Click on the course you want to apply. A 7-character code appears; note this down.
Click on the revision tab. Click on Apply now; it prompts you to enter the 7-character code you noted down. Enter the code and submit your application
Finally, make the necessary application payments through your mode of choice from the provided list; preferably MPESA.
In the KUCCPS online application, a successful submission must have the programme code, name/duration, and the institution’s name. If successfully considered, you will receive an admission letter via the portal that you download and use to get admission to the institution. Of course, you will also receive your admission results via SMS.

Rangwe Technical and Vocational College Admission Letter.

All Technical Training Institute Diploma, Certificate and Artisan Courses Fees

Download the free pdf documents below that have complete details of all TTI Courses and their Fees per year:

Career Opportunities for TVC Graduates

TVC graduates in Kenya have a wide range of career opportunities, primarily in technical and vocational fields. These include roles as trainers in TVET institutions, skilled workers in various industries like construction, manufacturing, and hospitality, and entrepreneurs who can leverage their skills to start their own businesses.

The Career opportunities for Technical and Vocational Training Colleges’ Graduates include:

1. TVET Trainer/Lecturer:

Many TVET institutions are actively seeking qualified trainers to teach in various disciplines.
Opportunities exist at both the certificate and diploma levels, requiring specific qualifications and often pedagogy training.
Examples include positions at institutions like the Kenya School of TVET, The Eldoret National Polytechnic, and various other TVC institutions.

2. Skilled Trades and Technical Roles:

Graduates can find employment in various industries that require technical skills, such as:
- Construction: Building, plumbing, electrical installation, etc.
- Manufacturing: Machine operation, fabrication, maintenance, etc.
- Hospitality: Food and beverage service, catering, housekeeping, etc.
- Agriculture: Agri-business, farm management, animal health, etc.
- ICT: Hardware and software support, networking, web development, etc.
The demand for skilled workers in these sectors is constantly growing.

3. Entrepreneurship:

TVC graduates can use their skills to start their own businesses. Examples include:
- Fashion and design: Tailoring, dressmaking, fashion design.
- Cosmetology: Hairdressing, beauty therapy, nail art.
- Automotive: Mechanics, panel beating, auto electrical work.
- Hospitality: Catering services, food vending, event planning.
The government encourages entrepreneurship through various initiatives and support programs.

4. Other Job Opportunities:

Public Relations and Receptionist:

TVETA, for example, has advertised for positions like Public Relations Assistant/Receptionist.
Career Counseling and Guidance:

Graduates with relevant experience can work in career guidance and counseling roles in institutions or with organizations like the Office of Career Services (OCS).
Project Management:

Some TVET institutions are also offering programs in project planning and management, which can lead to roles in project coordination and implementation.

5. Specific Fields in Demand:

The following fields are highly on demand and are worthy considering:

Digital Skills:

The rise of technology has increased demand for professionals in digital design, smart construction, and other related fields.
Creative Industries:

Skills in areas like journalism, interior design, fashion design, and media production are also in demand.
Sustainable Practices:

The growing focus on green and sustainable building practices opens up opportunities for professionals in these areas.

6. Government Initiatives:

The Ministry of Education, State Department for TVET actively seeks to recruit qualified trainers and other staff.
Various government agencies and institutions offer internship and training programs to support TVET graduates.

TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL COLLEGE FEES STRUCTURE

Table 1: TVC Fees Structure Per Year without Government Captitaion

Table 2: TVC Fees Structure Per Year with Government Captitaion

Table 3: TVC Fees Structure Per Year with Government Captitaion