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ENGLISH GRAMMAR HIGH SCHOOL NOTES

October 5, 2025 Maverick John Leave a comment

SECONDARY ENGLISH NOTES

FORM ONE

LISTENING AND SPEAKING FOR FORM ONE

PRONUNCIATION

PRONUNCIATION OF VOWEL SOUNDS

In English, we have various vowel sounds. We shall study them one after the other.

Sound /ᵆ/

Consider the letter ‘a’ in the words below. Each says this sound.

Pan
Fan
Ban
Brash
Cat
Pat
Dad
Ham
Mat
Rash
Track
Cram
Fanned
Flash
Pack
Rag
Sand
Slam
Tag
Man

Sound /ᶾ˸/

This sound is more like the sound you make when you are disgusted.
The letters in boldface say this sound. Study them carefully.

Bird
Shirt
Flirt
Turn
Learn
First
Berth
Her
Heard
Hurt
Purse
Birth
Cur
Fur
Firm
Herd
Burn
Curt
Pert
Stir
Blur
Shirk
Surge

Sound /a:/

It is pronounced by having a much wider open mouth position.
Inside your mouth is shown in the process of saying this sound.
Examples of words bearing this sound include:

Far
Farm
Guard
Heart
Hard
Bar
Bard
Cart
Car
Dart
Card
Par

Sound /ə/

This sound (referred to as schwa) is a short vowel sound.
It mostly found in words containing letter ‘o’, for example,

Confuse
Contemptuous
Continue
Condolence

Also in words such as:

Business

Sound /Ʌ/

Examples of words containing this sound include:

Sun
Son
Some
Pun
Fun
Cum
Cup
But
Much
Begun
Fun
Sung
Swum
Bug
Bunk
Brush
Hum
Rung
Truck
Stunned
Drum
Dumb
Fund

Sound /ɔ˸/

It is a long sound.
The mouth doesn’t move while saying this sound, and it can be pronounced as long as you have breath.
It is said in words such as:

Or
More
Chores
Dorm
Pork
Door
Four
Fore
Nor
Law
Cord
Form
Horn
Lord
Saw
Shore
Chalk
Jaw
Scorn

Sound /ᶛ/

It is a short sound.
The mouth doesn’t move.
Each of the words below bear this sound:

Got
On
Cost
Lost
Odd
Boss
Stock
Plot
Block
Cock
Cop
Mop
Rod
Sock
Shot
Pot
Blot
Crock
Frog
Swat
Swatch

Sound /ᶹ/

bosom

Sound /I:/

Long sound
Said in words such as the ones below:
Sheep
Feet
Meat
Tweet etc.

Sound /ᶦ/

It is a short sound.

In words such as:

Fit
Bit
Quit
Blip etc.

Exercise

The table below has columns with different sounds. Pronounce each of the words in the list and classify, according to the highlighted letter(s), under the column that bears that sound.

Chip

Jeep

Creek

Wet

Greased

Teal

Hill

Sit

Still

Blip

Fill

Bed

cheat

blink

thrill

jet

/i:/	/ᶦ/	/e/

PRONUNCIATION OF CONSONANT SOUNDS

The sound /ᵗᶴ/

Made by releasing the stopped air through your teeth by the `tip of your tongue.
It is voiceless because vocal cords do not vibrate when you say it.
Most words with letters ‘CH’ say this sound, for example,

Church

Chips

Teach

Pinch

Crunch

Much

There are those with letters ‘TCH’ for example,

Catch

Watch

Batch

Itch

Kitchen

witch

Some are with letters ‘TU’, for example,

Century

Spatula

The Sound /ᵈᶾ/

Pronounced the same way as /ᵗᶴ/. It is just that it is voiced.
Letters representing this sound include:
Letters ‘DG’

Fudge
Budge
Bridge
Judge

Letter ‘J’

Judge
Jump
Joy
Joke
Eject
July
Jake
Project

Letters ‘DU’

Procedure
Graduate
Individual

When letter ‘G represents the sound

It does that when it is in front of an ‘e’, ‘i’, or ‘y’

Letters ‘GE’, for example,

Agent
Germ
Gem
Budget
Gel
Angel
Danger
Emergency
Gentle
Bilge
Urgent
Knowledge
Large
Singe
Enlarge
Challenge
Ridge
Emerge

Letters ‘GI’, for example,

Agile
Allergic
Apologize
Contagious
Gist
Digitize
Eligible
Giraffe
Engineer
Fragile
Fugitive
Legion
Original
Vigilant

Letters ‘GY’, for example,

Allergy
Clergy
Egypt
Analogy
Zoology
Stingy
Gym
Liturgy
Panegyric

The Sound /f/

The sound is unvoiced or voiceless.
Air is stopped by pushing the bottom lip and top teeth together. The air is then pushed through to produce this sound.
The /f/ sound has the following letters saying it:
Letter ‘F’

Four
Wife
Knife
Life
Family
Staff
Puff
Five

Letters ‘PH’

Phone
Graph
Paragraph
Phrase

Letters ‘GH’

Cough
Rough
Laugh
Enough
Tough
Draught

The Sound /v/

The same mouth shape as /f/ is formed when pronouncing the sound /v/.
It is voiced.
Your top teeth is put on your bottom lip.
Words bearing this sound include:

Van
Vehicle
Vice
Unvoiced
Voice
Obvious
Previous
Drive
Save
Jovial
Virtue
Care
Wolves
Knives

The Sound /d/

/d/ is voiced. The vocal cords vibrate.
The low of air is stopped at the front of the mouth by tongue.
Practice speaking the words below:

Dad
Do
Did
Dog
Mad
Sad
Bad
Done
Loud
And

Sound /t/

To make this sound, your tongue stops the flow of air at the front of your mouth.
It is a voiceless/unvoiced sound.
It said in words like:

To
Top
Get
Hot
Pot
Butter
Later
What
Today
Tuesday

The sound /k/

There are various letters that say the sound /k/. let’s study these letters.

Letter ‘K’ always say this sound. Examples of words include:
Kill
Key
Kick
Sake
Kitten
Keep

Letter ‘C’, for example,
Call
Corn
Cane
Campaign
Camp
Confusion
Cucumber
Colic etc.
Letters ‘CK’ for example
Kick
Mock
Truck
Back etc.
Letter ‘Q’ for example,
Quack
Quail
Quartz
Quarter
Quick

Letters ‘CH’, for example,
Chaotic
Character
Ache

The Sound /g/

Found in words such as:

Galaxy
Game
Gate
Gibbon
Give
Goat
Gazelle
Gecko
Gold
Gown
Girl
Ghost
Geyser
Garbage

The Sound /ᶴ/

This sound is unvoiced – only air passes through the mouth when said.
The teeth are put together and the corners of the lips are brought together towards the middle.
Most words with letters ‘sh’ this sound. For example,

Shape

Shop

bishop

There are words with letters ‘CH’ that say this sound, for example,

Brochure

Cache

Cachet

Chagrin

Champagne

Charade

Chute

Chef

Chiffon

Niche

Ricochet

Charlotte

Chicago

Michigan

Chevrolet

Fuchsia

Cliché

Chivalry

Quiche

chaise

Some words with ‘SU’ also say it, for example,

Sugar

Surmac

Sure

Issue

Pressure

There are yet those with letters ‘TIO’, for example,

Nation

Motion

Option

Caution

Then there are those with letters ‘SIO’, for example,

Submission

Commission

Confession

Sound /ᶿ/

Pronounced with your tongue between your teeth.
It is unvoiced.
The words bearing this sound include:

Mouth
Thing
Faith
Fourth
Thick
Think
Three
Thought
Tenth
Math
Myth
Thumb
Youth
Thrive
Growth
North
Truth
Pith
Thank
Thorn
Thimble
Three
Theme
Therapist
Thigh
Thickness

Sound /ᶞ/

Unlike /ᶿ/, it is voiced.
It also pronounced with tongue touching or between your teeth.
It is found in such words as:

With
There
Clothing
These
Thence
Then
Their
they

Sound /s/

This is a hissing sound like a snake.
It is voiceless.
The few rules for some of the common spellings that say the sound /s/ are:
Letter ‘S’, for example,

Sit

Wise

Dogs

Say

Sad

Sound

Boss

This

Lips

Misty

Sunday

Letter ‘SC’, for example,

Muscle

Descend

Science

Scream

Letter ‘X’, for example,

Fix

Fox

Mix

Letter ‘C’, for example,

Face

Practice

City

Circle

Fence

License

Sound /z/

The /z/ is like the sound of buzzing bees.
It is voiced.
Most words with the letter ‘Z’ say /z/, for example,

Zoo
Zip
Zebra
Quiz
Buzz
Freeze
Doze
prize

There are those words with letter ‘S’ saying this sound, for example,

Is
Was
His
Hers
Nose
Noise
Noises
Rose
Roses
Frogs
Girls
Friends
Lies
Busy
Tuesday
Wednesday
Sounds
Pose
Reason
Rise
Eyes
These
Days
Says
Ties
Has
Flows
Because
Shoes
Visit
Those
Bananas
cows

The other group of words are those with letter ‘X’, for example,

Exist, anxiety

Sound /ᵌ/

Words bearing this sound are borrowed from French.
Pronounced in the same way as /ᶴ/ only that is voiced.
The examples of words with this sound are:

Garage

Beige

Massage

Sabotage

Genre

Measure

Treasure

Closure

Seizure

Leisure

Persian

Conclusion

Casual

Casually

Usual

Usually

Amnesia

Collision

Division

Version

Television

Exposure

Occasion

Persuasion

Cashmere

Asia

Visual

Vision

Lesion

Decision

Caucasian

Practice in sentences

Measure the beige door on the garage.
It was my decision to fly to Asia to seek treisure.

Sound /r/

Raise the back of your tongue to slightly touch the back teeth on both sides of your mouth. The centre part of the tongue remains lower to allow air to move over it.
It is voiced.
It is found in words with letter ‘R’ e.g.
Red
Friday
Worry
Sorry
Marry
It is also said in words with letters ‘WR’ e.g.
Write
Wrong
Wrath
Wry
Wring

Sound /w/

Your lips form a small, tight circle when making the sound /w/.
Letters representing the /w/ sound are:
Letter ‘W’

Woman

Wife

New

Sweet

Win

Rewind

Towel

Wait

Letters WH

Why

Where

When

While

What

White

Whom

Who

Whole

Letters ‘QU’

Quit

Quick

Quite

Quiet

Queer

Queen

Quota

Quickly

Others

One

Choir

Sound /m/

Made by pressing the lips lightly.
The words that follow contain the sound:

Mum
Mine
Me
Morning
Farmer
Shame
Meat
Myself

Exercise 1

Read the sentence below pronouncing each word correctly and then group the words in their appropriate columns. Consider the highlighted letters.

The seven students took the first test for their driver’s licenceson Thursday.

/s/	/z/

Exercise 2

Considering the pronunciation of highlighted letters, pick the odd word out.

Judge, gesture, garage
Jump, gift, geological
Fungi, just, go
Digit, game, gamble
Hygiene, prodigy, entangle
Gecko, gem, zoology

Exercise 3

Pronounce each word correctly and then group it under the column containing the sound that the highlighted letter(s) bear.

Tissue

Caucasian

Division

Passion

Ocean

Cautious

Leisure

Solution

Pressure

Vision

Persian

Casual

Chef

Conclusion

Television

Decision

Collision

Sure

Precious

Exposure

/ᶴ/	/ᶾ/

Exercise 4

Circle the letter(s) that say /f/ and underline those saying /v/ in the sentences below.

Please forgive me for forgetting the leftover food.
Save the four wolves that live in the cave.

DIPHTHONGS

A diphthong is a combination of two vowel sounds.
Some of the diphthongs include:
/ᵊᶹ/
/ᵃᶸ/
/ᵉᶦ/

/ᵊᶹ/

In words like;

Role
Bone
Phone
Stone
Close
Note
Notice
Lonely
Home
Hope
Open
Ocean
Remote
Solar
Polar
Modal
Total
Motor
Moment
Bonus
Focus
Vogue
Social
Soldier
Coworker
Most
Post
Host
Ghost
Both
Low
Know
Mow
Sow
Show
Tow
Owe
Own
Bowl
Blow
Grown
Throw
Go
Ago
No
So
Toe
Hero
Zero
Veto
Ego
Echo
Radio
Studio
Mexico
Potato
Tomato
Logo
Motto
Cold
Gold
Bold
Sold
Told
Roll
Poll
Control
Bolt
Colt
Folk
Comb
Won’t
Don’t
Soul
Shoulder
Road
Load
Boat
Coast
Coat
Oak
Soak
Approach
Boast
Ok
Obey
Omit
Hotel
Motel

/ᵃᶸ/

Said in words such as:

How
Cow
Now
Allow
Owl
Brown
Down
Town
Clown
Drown
Crown
Crowd
Powder
Browse
Loud
Proud
Cloud
Out
Shout
About
Doubt
Foul
Noun
House
Mouse
Mouth
South
Couch
Found
Ground
Around
Pound
Sound
Count
Amount
Mountain
Announce
Bounce
Allowing
Towel
Bowel
Power
Tower
Flower
Shower
Hour
Our
Sour
Flour
coward

/ᵉᶦ/

The words containing this diphthong are:

wait
late
bait
date
tale
bail
bale
sale
gate
waste
wade
baby
bacon
paper
April
Danger
Angel
Stranger
Basis
Lazy
Crazy
Fail
Mail
Sail
Rail
Raise
Raid
Afraid
Wait
Straight
Faint
Paint
Fate
Rate
Kate
Race
Base
Place
Lake
Take
Name
Ache
Rage
Patient
Racial
Nation
Nature
Fatal
Patriot
Radio
Vacant
Weight
Eight
Vein
Neighbour
Break
Steak
Age
Wage
Save
Cave
Wave
Ray
Gray
Play
Lay
Day
May
Pray
Convey
Survey
Stain
Change etc.

Exercise

Write another word pronounced the same way as:

Gait
Made
Mail
Pale
Pain
Plain
Sale
Tale
Vain
Waist
Wait
Eight
Sew
No
Toe
Grown

MINIMAL PAIRS

Study the pairs of words below carefully.

Fit – feet

Let – late

Van – fan

Pun – pan

What do you notice? You realize that only one sound makes the pronunciation of one word distinct from the other. Each pair is called a minimal pair.
A minimal pair is therefore a pair of words that vary by only one sound especially those that usually confuse learners, such as /l/ and /r/, /b/ and /p/, and many others.

Minimal Pairs of Vowel Sounds

Sound /i/ and /i:/

Bid – bead
Bit – beat
Bitch – beach
Bin – bean/ been
Chip – cheap
Fit – feat/ feet
Fist – feast
Fizz – fees
Gin – gene
Sin – seen/ scene
Still – steal/ steel
Sick – seek
Is – ease
Itch – each
Risen – reason
Piss – piece/ peace
Pick – peak/ peek
Mill – meal

Exercise

Write another word in which either sound /i/ and /i:/ will make it vary from the one given.

Hit
Sheet
Tin
Peach
Lip
Neat
Kip
Eel
Greed
Pill
Skied
Skim

Sounds /i/ and /e/

Did – dead
Disk – desk
Built – belt
Bit – bet
Lipped – leapt
Middle – meddle
Fill – fell
Bid – bed
Bill – bell
Lit – let
List – lest
Clinch – clench

Exercise

Complete the table below with a word in which either the sound /e/ or /i/ brings the difference in pronunciation.

	/e/	/i/
1	Head
2		Miss
3		Hymn
4	Led
5	Fen
6		Lid
7	Den
8	Peg

Sounds /e/ and /ei/

The following words vary by one having the vowel sound /e/ and the other a diphthong /ei/

Wet – wait
Bread – braid
Fen – feign
Bed – bade
Get – gate/ gait
Let – late
Met – mate
Lest – laced
Tech – take
West – waste/ waist
When – wane
Edge – age
Gel – jail
Lens – lanes
Breast – braced
Sent – saint
Test – taste
Best – based
Wren – rain/ reign
Led – laid
Bled – blade
Fed – fade

Exercise

Each word below has another word in which either the sound /e/ or /ei/ will bring the distinction in pronunciation. Write that word.

Fell
Pain
Hail
Sell
Well
Mate
Raid
Date
Men
Stayed
Bet
Jail

Sounds /ᵆ/ and /ᶺ/

Batter – butter
Cap – cup
Cat – cut
Back – buck
Brash – brush
Dabble – double
Rang – rung
Track – truck
Bad – bud
Began – begun
Bag – bug
Pan – pun
Drank – drunk
Fan – fun
Hat – hut
Badge – budge
Hang – hung
Massed – must
Rash – rush
Sank – sunk
Ran – run
Swam – swum
Ban – bun
Ham – hum

Exercise

Complete the table below with the minimal pair of the word. Consider the sound indicated in each column.

	/ᵆ/	/ᶺ/
(a)		But
(b)	Match
(c)	Mad
(d)		Flush
(e)	Cam
(f)		Dumb
(g)	Sang
(h)		Uncle
(i)	Crash
(j)	Sack
(k)		Dump
(l)		Tug

Sounds /ᵆ/ and /e/

look at the list below.

Bad – bed
And – end
Had – head
Jam – gem
Pat – pet
Sat – set
Shall – shell
Man –men
Bag – beg
Ham – hem
Pan – pen
Sad – said
Manned – mend
Land – lend

Exercise

Complete the table with appropriate word that vary with the sound indicated in the column.

	/ᵆ/	/ᵉ/
(a)	Marry
(b)		Blend
(c)	Cattle
(d)	Vat
(e)	Sacks
(f)		Trek
(g)	Trad
(h)		met

Minimal Pairs of /ɑ˸/ and /ᵌ˸/

fast – first
bath – berth/birth
heart – hurt
bard – bird
car – cur
card – curd
guard – gird
pa – per
bar – bur
barn – burn
carve – curve
dart – dirt
par – purr
park – perk
star – stir
arc – irk

Exercise 6

Considering the sounds /ɑ˸/ and /ᵌ˸/, write the minimal pair of:

far
heard/herd
pass
farm
shark
curt

Minimal Pairs of /b/ and /v/

bat – vat
beer – veer
bowl – vole
bow – vow
gibbon – given
bale – veil
bane – vein
curb – curve
bolt – volt
bowl – vole
broom – vroom
dribble – drivel
dub – dove
jibe – jive
rebel – revel

Exercise 7

There is another word that will vary with the one written below with just one sound. Depending on the sounds /b/ and /v/, write that word.

van
boat
Vest
Vowels
Vent
Bury
Loaves
Verve

Minimal pairs of /f/ and /v/

Fan – van
Off – of
Fat – vat
Fee – v
Foul – vowel
Fender – vendor
Serf/Surf – serve
Duff – dove
Fie – vie
Foal – vole
Guff – guv
Waif – waive
Gif – give
Life – live
Safe – save
Belief – believe
Feel – veal
Staff – starve
Feign – vain/ vein
Foist – voiced
Fox – vox
Reef – reeve

Exercise 8

Write the minimal pair of the word below with consideration being either the sound /f/ or /v/.

Ferry
Leaf
Vast
Fine
Half
Proof
Veil
Grief
Calf
Fault
Vile
Strive

Minimal Pairs of Sounds/s/ and /ᶿ/

Mouse – mouth
Sing – thing
Face – faith
Force – fourth
Sick – thick
Sink – think
Sort – thought
Tense – tenth
Mass – math
Miss – myth
Pass – path
Saw – thaw
Seem – theme
Some – thumb
Song – thong
Worse – worth
Gross – growth
Sigh – thigh
Sin – thin
Sum – thumb
Piss – pith
Sawn – thorn
Symbol – thimble
Sore – thaw
Truce – truth
Suds – thuds
Sought – thought
Moss – moth
Sank – thank
Sump – thump

Sounds /t/ and /d/

Town – down
Touch – Dutch
Tear – dare
Ten – den
Tongue – dung
Tart – dart
Tech – deck
Tin – din
Toe – doe
Tough – duff
Tuck – duck
Tab – dab
Tank – dank
Tick – dick
Tine – dine
Hat – had
Spent – spend
Too/ to/two – do
Train – drain
Tide – dyed/died
Torn – dawn
Teal – deal
Teen – dean
Tyre/tire – dire
Toes – doze
Tout – doubt
Tug – dug
Tale/ tail – dale
Teed – deed
Tier – deer
Tint – dint
Sheet – she’d
Wait – weighed
Tie – die
Try – dry
Tear – dear
Tip – dip
Tame – dame
Team – deem
Tent – dent
Toast – dosed
Tomb – doom
Tower – dour
Tux – ducks
Tamp – damp
Tell – dell
Till – dill
Tusk – dusk
Sight – side
Beat – bead

Exercise 9

Each word below has another word in which all the sounds are the same except either the sound /t/ or /d/ is different. Write that word.

Bat
God
Write
And
At
Bed
Bored
Eight
Bet
Feet
Hit
Hurt
Mat
Mend
Neat
Nod
Set
Played
Sat
Dead

Minimal Pairs of /k/ and /g/

Initial

Came – game
Card – guard
Cold – gold
Clean – glean
Crate – great
Cap – gap
Coast – ghost
Kale – gale
Can – gone
Course – gorse
Cram – gram
Crepe – grape
Crew – grew
Croup – group
Crow – grow
Key – ghee
K – gay
Clamour – glamour
Clad – glad
Crane – grain
Creed – greed
Krill – grill
Cunning – gunning
Cab – gab
Cape – gape
Clam – glam
Cord – gored
Coup – goo
Crate – grate
Cuff – guff

Final

Clock – clog
Dock – dog
Frock – frog
Muck – mug
Brick – brig
Broke – brogue
Crack – crag
Prick – prig
Puck – pug
Shack – shag
Slack – slag
Snuck – snug
Stack – stag
Whack – wag
Wick – wig
Jock – jog
Lack – lag
Luck – lug
Beck – beg
Cock – cog
Hack – hag
Pick – pig

Exercise 10

Complete the table with appropriate word that only differs with one sound with the one given. Consider the sounds in the columns.

	/k/	/g/
(a)	Tack
(b)		Flog
(c)	Tuck
(d)		Gum
(e)		Gash
(f)	Jack
(g)	Cave
(h)		Sag
(i)	Leak
(j)	Crab
(k)	Class
(l)		Good
(m)		Goat
(n)		Blog
(o)	Kill
(p)		Dug
(q)		Gut
(r)		Log
(s)	Rack
(t)	Cot

HOMOPHONES

Words pronounced the same way but have different spellings and meanings are the homophones. The list below is English homophones.

Accessary accessory
Ad, add
Ail, ale
Air, heir
Aisle, I’ll, isle
All, awl
Allowed, aloud
Alms, arms
Altar, alter
Ante, anti
Arc, ark
Aural, oral
Away, aweigh
Awe, oar, or, ore
Axel, axle
Aye, eye, I
Bail, bale
Bait, bate
Baize, bays
Bald, bawled
Ball, bawl
Band, banned
Bard, barred
Bare, bear
Bark, barque
Baron, barren
Base, bass
Bay, bey
Bazaar, bizarre
Be, bee
Beach, beech
Bean, been
Beat, beet
Beau, bow
Beer, bier
Bell, belle
Berry, bury
Berth, birth
Bight, bite, byte
Billed, build
Bitten, bittern
Blew, blue
Bloc, block
Boar, bore
Board, bored
Boarder, border
Bold, bawled
Boos, booze
Born, borne
Bough, bow
Boy, buoy
Brae, bray
Braid, brayed
Braise, brays, braze
Brake, break
Bread, bred
Brews, bruise
Bridal, bridle
Broach, brooch
Bur, burr
But, butt
Buy, by, bye
Buyer, byre
Call, caul
Canvas, canvass
Cast, caste
Caster, castor
Caught, court
Caw, core, corps
Cede, seed
Ceiling, sealing
Censer, censor, sensor
Cent, scent, sent
Cereal, serial
Cheap, cheep
Check, cheque
Choir, quire
Chord, cord
Cite, sight, site
Clack, claque
Clew, clue
Climb, clime
Close, cloze
Coarse, course
Coign, coin
Colonel, kernel
Complacent, complaisant
Complement, compliment
Coo, coup
Cops, copse
Council, counsel
Cousin, cozen
Creak, creek
Crews, cruise
Cue, queue
Curb, kerb
Currant, current
Cymbol, symbol
Dam, damn
Days, daze
Dear, deer
Descent, dissent
Desert, dessert
Deviser, divisor
Dew, due
Die, dye
Discreet, discrete
Doe, dough
Done, dun
Douse, dowse
Draft, draught
Dual, duel
Earn, urn
Ewe, yew, you
Faint, feint
Fair, fare
Farther, father
Fate, fete
Faun, fawn
Fay, fey
Faze, phase
Feat, feet
Ferrule, ferule
Few, phew
File, phial
Find, fined
Fir, fur
Flair, flare
Flaw, floor
Flea, flee
Flex, flecks
Flew, flu, flue
Floe, flow
Flour, flower
Foaled, fold
For, fore, four
Foreword, forward
Fort, fought
Forth, fourth
Foul, fowl
Franc, frank
Freeze, frieze
Friar, fryer
Furs, furze
Gait, gate
Gamble, gambol
Gays, gaze
Genes, jeans
Gild, guild
Gilt, guilt
Gnaw, nor
Gneiss, nice
Gorilla, guerrilla
Grate, great
Greave, grieve
Greys, graze
Groan, grown
Guessed, guest
Hail, hale
Hair, hare
Hall, haul
Hangar, hanger
Hart, heart
Haw, hoar, whore
Hay, hey
Heal, heel, he’ll
Hear, here
Heard, herd
He’d, heed
Heroin, heroine
Hew, hue
Hi, high
Higher, hire
Him, hymn
Ho, hoe
Hoard, horde
Hoarse, horse
Holey, holy, wholly
Hour, our
Idle, idol
In, inn
Indict, indite
It’s, its
Jewel, joule
Key, quay
Knave, nave
Knead, need
Knew, new
Knight, night
Knit, nit
Knob, nob
Knock, nock
Knot, not
Know, no
Knows, nose
Laager, lager
Lac, lack
Lade, laid
Lain, lane
Lam, lamb
Laps, lapse
Larva, lava
Lase, laze
Law, lore
Lay, ley
Lea, lee
Leach, leech
Lead, led
Leak, leek
Lean, lien
Lessen, lesson
Levee, levy
Liar, lyre
Licker, liquor
Lie, lye
Lieu, loo
Links, lynx
Lo, low
Load, lode
Loan, lone
Locks, lox
Loop, loupe
Loot, lute
Made, maid
Mail, male
Main, mane
Maize, maze
Mall, maul
Manna, manner
Mantel, mantle
Mare, mayor
Mark, marque
Marshal, martial
Mask, masque
Maw, more
Me, mi
Mean, mien
Meat, meet, mete
Medal, meddle
Metal, mettle
Meter, metre
Might, mite
Miner, minor
Mind, mined
Missed, mist
Moat, mote
Mode, mowed
Moor, more
Moose, mousse
Morning, mourning
Muscle, mussel
Naval, navel
Nay, neigh
None, nun
Od, odd
Ode, owed
Oh, owe
One, won
Packed, pact
Pail, pale
Pain, pane
Pair, pare, pear
Palate, palette, pallet
Paten, pattern,
Pause, paws, pores, pours
Pawn, porn
Pea, pee
Peace, piece
Peak, peek
Peal, peel
Pearl, purl
Pedal, peddle
Peer, pier
Pi, pie
Place, plaice
Plain, plane
Pleas, please
Plum, plumb
Pole, poll
Practice, practise
Praise, prays, preys
Principal, principle
Profit, prophet
Quarts, quartz
Quean, queen
Rain, reign, rein
Raise, rays, raze
Rap, wrap
Raw, roar
Read, reed
Read, red
Real, reel
Reek, wreak
Rest, wrest
Retch, wretch
Review, revue
Rheum, room
Right, rite, write
Ring, wring
Road, rode
Roe, row
Role, roll
Roux, rue
Rood, rude
Root, route
Rose, rows
Rota, rotor
Rote, wrote
Rough, ruff
Rouse, rows
Rung, wrung
Rye, wry
Saver, savour
Spade, spayed
Sale, sail
Sane, seine
Satire, satyr
Sauce, source
Saw, soar, sore
Scene, seen
Scull, skull
Sea, see
Seam, seem
Sear, seer, sere
Seas, sees, seize
Sew, so, sow
Shake, sheikh
Shear, sheer
Shoe, shoo
Sic, sick
Side, sighed
Sign, sine
Sink, synch
Slay, sleigh
Sloe, slow
Sole, soul
Some, sum
Son, sun
Sort, sought
Spa,spar
Staid,stayed
Stair,stare
Stake,stoak
Stalk,stork
Stationary,stationery
Steal,steel
Stile,style
Storey,story
Straight,strait
Sweat,sweet
Swat,swot
Tacks,tax
Tale,tail
Talk,torque
Tare, tear
Taught,taut,tort
Tea,tee
Team,teem
Teas, tease
Tare, tear
Tern,t urn
There,their, they’re
Threw,through
Throes,throws
Throne, thrown
Thyme,time
Tic,tick
Tide,tied
Tire,tyre
To,too,two
Toad,toed,towed
Told,tolled
Tole,toll
Ton,tun
Tor,tore
Tough,tuff
Troop,troupe
Tuba,tuber
Vain,vane,vein
Vale,veil
Vial,vile
Wail,wale,whale
Wain, wane
Waist, waste
Waive, wave
Wall, waul
War, wore
Warn, worn

Watt, what
Wax, whacks
Way, weigh
We, wee
Weak, week
We’d, weed
Weal, we’ll, wheel
Weather, whether
Weir, we’re
Were, whirr
Wet, whet
Weald, wheeled
Which, witch
Whig, wig
While, wile
Whine, wine
Whirl, whorl
Whirled, world
Whit, wit
White, wight
Who’s, whose
Wood, would
Yaw, yore, your, you’re
Yoke, yolk
You’ll, yule

Exercise

Write two words pronounced the same way as each of the following words.

SILENT LETTERS

In English there are letters that are usually not pronounced in certain words. Let us have a look at these letters and words in which they are silent.

Letter ‘A’

Logically
Musically
Romantically
Stoically
Artistically

Letter ‘B’

Aplomb
Bomb
Climb
Comb
Crumb
Debt
Jamb
Lamb
Limb
Numb
Plumb
Subtle
Succumb
Thumb
Tomb
Womb

Letter ‘C’

Ascend
Abscess
Ascent
Conscience
Conscious
Crescent
Descend
Descent
Discipline
Fascinate
Fluorescent
Isosceles
Luminescent
Muscle
Obscene
Resuscitate
Scenario
Scene
Scent
Scissors

Letter ‘D’

Wednesday
Hedge
Dodge
Pledge
Grudge
Sandwich
Handkerchief

Letter ‘E’

Hate
Name
Like
Hope
Lessen
Surprised

Letter ‘G’

Align
Assign
Benign
Campaign
Champagne
Cologne
Consign
Gnarl
Gnash
Gnaw
Gnome
Gnu
Reign
Sign

Letter ‘H’

Honest
Hour
Heir
Honour
Ache
Anchor
Archeology
Architect
Archives
Chaos
Character
Cholera
Charisma
Chemical
Chemist
Chorus
Choir
Echo
Loch
Shepherd
Monarch
Scheme
psych

Letter ‘I’

Business
Parliament

Letter ‘K’

Knock
Knapsack
Knave
Knead
Knee
Kneel
Knell
Knew
Knickers
Knife
Knight
Knit
Knob
Knock
Knot
Know
Knowledge
Knuckle

Letter ‘L’

Calm
Half
Talk
Walk
Would
Should
Calf
Salmon
Yolk
Folk
Balk

Letter ‘N’

Autumn
Column
Condemn
Damn
Hymn
Solemn

Letter ‘O’

Lesson

Letter ‘P’

Psychology
Pneumonia
Pseudo
Psychiatrist
Psychotherapy
Psychotic
Receipt
Corps
Coup

Letter ‘S’

Island
Aisle
Apropos
Bourgeois

Letter ‘T’

Apostle
Bristle
Bustle
Castle
fasten
glisten
hustle
jostle
listen
moisten
mortgage
nestle
rustle
thistle
trestle
whistle
wrestle

Letter ‘U’

baguette
biscuit
build
built
circuit
disguise
guess
guide
guild
guile
guillotine
guilt
guilty
guilty
guise
guitar
rogue
silhouette
colleague
tongue

Letter ‘W’

awry
playwright
sword
wrangle
wrap
wrapper
wrath
wreak
wreath
wreck
wreckage
wren
wrench
wretched
wriggle
wring
wrinkle
wrist
writ
write
wrote
wrong
writhe
wrong
wrought
wrung
wry

Exercise

Identify the silent letter(s) in:

debtor
isle

mock

depot
acquit
womb

patios
thyme

handsome
sandwich
government

listen
Christmas
Whether

Rapport

Ballet
Chalet
Aplomb
Ricochet

Clothes

Cupboard
Faux
Mnemonic
Numb
Rendezvous
Catalogue
Vegetable
Asthma
months
debris

RIDDLES

A riddle is a statement or a question with veiled meaning posed as a puzzle to be solved.
The riddles play functions such as:
They boost the creativity of kids.
They entertain.
Some examples of riddles include:
What gets wetter and wetter the more it dries? A towel.
What can you catch but not throw? A cold.
What goes around the world but stays in a corner? A stamp.
Give me food, and I will live; give me water, and I will die. What am I ? Fire.

Riddling Process

There are two parties involved: the audience (respondents) and the challenger(or the riddler).
There are basically four stages of a riddling process, but at times six.
The parts of the riddling process are:
The riddlerchallenges the audience. The challenge differs from community to community. Some phrases used here include: riddle riddle!, I have a riddle! Etc.
The respondents accept the challenge. The invitations include: riddle come! Throw it! Etc.
The riddler then poses the riddle.
The guess or guesses. The audience tries to come up with the solution. If they are unable, then the next part follows.
The challenger asks for a prize. The prize can be a town or city, or any other thing. The challenger accepts the prize.
Then the solution is given by the challenger.

Exercise

Read the riddling convention below and then identify its six parts.

Challenger: I have a riddle!

Respondent: Throw it.

Challenger: What comes down but never goes up?

Respondent: Wind

Challenger: no, try again.

Respondent: Bird

Challenger: What will you give me if I offer the solution?

Respondent: You will have the entire fire to yourself.

Challenger: The answer is rain.

FEATURES OF OGRE STORIES AND TRICKSTERS

OGRE STORIES
An ogre usually represents an evil.
Ogre are usually destroyed at the end.
They have happy ending.

Functions of Ogre Stories

They warn against strangers.
They caution youth against marrying the people they don’t know.

TRICKSTER STORIES
A character makes up for a physical weakness with cunning and subversive humour.
The trickster alternatives between:

Cleverness and stupidity;
Kindness and cruelty;

Deceiver and deceived; and

Breaker of taboos and creator of culture.

MASTERY OF CONTENT

DEBATE

A formal contest of argumentation between two sides is what debate is.
Debate embodies the ideals of reasoned argument, and tolerance for divergent points of view.
There are two sides in the debate: the proposition and the
These two teams are presented with a resolution, such as, ‘Girls and Boys Should play in a mixed football team.’
The teams are given enough preparation time.
The team affirming the resolution speaks first.
The opposing team then must refute the arguments offered by the affirming team and offer arguments rejecting the resolution.
Both sides are given the opportunity to present their positions and to directly question the other team.
Neutral judge (s) then evaluate the persuasiveness of the arguments and offer constructive feedback.

Preparation Time

This is the time you have from when the motion is announced to the beginning of the debate. During this time:

Research on the motion to get facts. The facts can be got from the teachers, other students, etc.
Write notes on the facts. You can once in a while look at them during your presentation.
Practice how to speak. Do it in front of friends and relatives, as well as in front of a mirror.
If anxious, do some physical exercise. You can also take a deep breath just before your presentation.
Dress decently.

Points Delivery

Here are the points that will help you be successful during your points delivery:

Deliver your points in a confident and persuasive way.
Vary your tone to make you sound interesting. Listening to one tone is boring.
Speak quite loudly to be comfortably heard by everyone in the room. Shouting does not win debates.
Make eye contact with your audience, but keep shifting your gaze. Don’t stare at one person.
Concisely and clearly express your points to be understood by your audience members.
Provide a proof for each point you put across. If you don’t you will not earn a point.
Speak slowly and enunciate your words. When you slow down your speech, you give your audience and the judge more time to process your strong points.
Use gestures to elaborate on your points.
Pause to divide your major points.

Heckling

Only supportive and argumentative heckling is permitted.
Heckling is a brief phrase (about two words) or other non- verbal actions that are directed to the judge of the debate.
They are reminder to the judge to pay close attention to the message immediately expressed by the speaker.
There are two types of heckles:
Those that are non-verbal, such as,
Rapping the knuckles on the desktop.
Rapping the palm on the desk.
Stamping the feet

They are meant to encourage the judge to heed a particularly strong point being made by the speaker.

Those that are verbal, such as,
Objective
Evidence
Point of information

They are said after standing up by one member of the opposing side. These are meant to alert the judge to a problem in the opposing side’s argument.

Exercise

After you deliver your points during the debate, everyone claps for you. How could you have delivered your points to earn their heckling?

ETIQUETTE

Etiquette is the rules that indicate the proper and polite manner to behave.

USE OF COURTEOUS LANGUAGE

When one uses courteous language, he/she uses a language that is very polite and polished to show respect.
At no time should you allow yourself be rude, ill-mannered, impolite, inconsiderate, or even thoughtless.
Being and remaining polite will go a long way in building relationships.
To show politeness and respect:
Use the word please in request;
Say thank you to those who help or compliment you.
Start your requests or interrogatives beginning with words such as can, could, may, will, or would.
Say excuse me when you interrupt other people or intrude into their time or privacy.
Use question tags.
In this section, we shall learn the words and phrases that show respect.

Please
We use it when you want someone to do something for you. For example: Can you pass that cup, please?
also used when you want something from someone. For example: Lend me ten shillings, please.
Thank you
Use it whenever someone does something for you.
Use it when someone commends you.
Sorry
Say it any time you inconvenience someone.
Say it when step on someone’s toes, etc.
Also when someone asks you something you cannot do.
Excuse me

To introduce a request to someone, or to get past someone, use this phrase. For example

Excuse me, can you show me where Amina lives?

Pardon me

Almost as ‘excuse me’

Exercise 1

Jennifer has gone to the shop to buy a bar of soap. The shopkeeper tells her to be polite the next time she comes to buy from him. Showing where, which polite phrases could Jennifer have failed to use?

Exercise 2

Read the dialogue below and then explain how Jacinta expresses politeness.

John: I would like to send this letter to japan by airmail, how much is the charge?

Jacinta: It’s one pound, do you need extra stamps?

John: I do, I have been also expecting a package from New-York. Here is my identity card and receipt.

Jacinta: Would you mind signing this form? Here is the package.

John:Finally, I would like to send this registered letter to London.

Jacinta:Please fill in the complete address in capital letters.

NON VERBAL SKILLS IN LISTENING AND SPEAKING

IMPORTANCE OF RESPECTING PERSONAL SPACE

A personal space is an imaginary area between a person and their surrounding area. This space makes the person feel comfortable and should therefore not be encroached.

The distance can exist at work, at home and in our social circles.

The personal space varies depending on factors such as:

Gender
Trust
Relationship
Familiarity with the person.

Why Respect People’s personal Space?

To make them feel comfortable.
To maintain good relationships.
To enhance listening. Especially during a talk.

General Personal Space Rules

The personal space guidelines below will help enhance listening and speaking:

Respectfully keep your distance if you walk into a room and see two people in private conversation.
Pay attention to your volume when you speak, whether on the phone or in person, to ensure you don’t distract attention of others.
Maintain physical space at table and chair rows so the people around you have enough room to write, raise their hands, etc.
Be mindful of amount of perfume or cologne you wear as if it is in excess it might distract others.
Never lean on the other person’s shoulder unless invited to.
Don’t eavesdrop on another person’s phone conversation. In case you overhear details of the conversation, keep it confidential.

Dealing with Space Intrusion

Depending on the nature of the intrusion, you would deal with space encroachment in different ways. Here are the steps of dealing with a person who leans on your shoulder:

Lean away or take a step back away from the person hoping they would take a hint.
Come right out and say you feel discomfort being too close.
Explain why you need more space. You can for example tell them you need more space to write.

Exercise

You have attended a one day seminar. The person sitting next to you is said to be intruding your personal space. What four personal space guidelines could this person have failed to follow?

LISTENING AND SPEAKING ANSWERS

PRONUNCIATION OF VOWEL SOUNDS

/ᶦ/

Hill
Sit
Still
Blip
Fill
Blink
Thrill

/i:/

Jeep
Creek
Greased
Teal
cheat

/e/

PRONUNCIATION OF CONSONANT SOUNDS

Exercise 1

Sound /s/: seven, students, first, test, licences

Sound /z/ : driver’s, licences, Thursday

Exercise 2

Garage
Gift
Go
Digit
Entangle
Gecko

Exercise 3

Sound /ᶴ/ :tissue, passion, ocean, cautious, solution, pressure, Persian, chef, sure, precious

Sound /ᶾ/ :Caucasian, division, leisure, vision, casual, conclusion, television, decision, collision, exposure

Exercise 4

Sound /f/ : forgive, for, forgetting, leftover, food

Sound /v/ :forgive, leftover

DIPHTHONGS

Gate
Made
Male
Pail
Pane
Plane
Sail
Tail
Vane/vein
Waste
Weight
Ate
Sow
Know
Tow
Groan

MINIMAL PAIRS

Exercise 1

Heat
Shit
Teen
Pitch
Leap
Knit
Keep
Ill
Grid
Peel
Skid
Scheme

Exercise 2

Hid
Mess
Hem
Led
Fin
Led
Din
Pig

Exercise 3

Fail
Pen
Hell
Sail/sale
Whale
Met
Read/red
Debt
Main
Stead

Exercise 4

Bat
Much
Mud
Flash
Come
Dam
Sung
Ankle
Crush
Suck
Damp
Tag

Exercise 5

Merry
Bland
Kettle
Vet
Sex
Track
Tread
Mat

Exercise 6

Fir/fur
Hard
Purse
Firm
Shirk
Cart

Exercise 7

Ban
Vote
Best
Bowels
Bent
Very
Lobes
Verb

Exercise 8

Very
Leave
Fast
Vine
Halve
Prove
Fail
Grieve
Carve
Vault
File
Strife

Exercise 9

Bad
Got
Ride
Ant
add
Bet
Bought
Aid
Bed
feed
Hid
Heard
Mad
Meant
need
Not
Said
Plate
Sad
Debt

Exercise 10

Tag
Flock
Tuck
Come
Cash
Jag
Gave
Sack
League
Grab
Glass
Could
Coat
Block
Gill
Duck
Cut
Lock
Rag
got

HOMOPHONES

bee, be
see, sea
aye, eye
pee, pea
tea, tee
ewe, you

SILENT LETTERS

RIDDLES

Challenge – I have a riddle!
Acceptance – Throw it.
Pose/ Riddle – What comes down but never goes up?
Guesses – wind, bird
Prize – Fire
Solution – rain

Exercise 2

aabcddbceeccffccgghh

DEBATE

I could have:

Spoken confidently
Varied my tone appropriately
Spoken loud enough to be heard by everyone
Made my contact with my audience
Provided proofs for my points in persuasive way.
Spoken slowly and enunciated words correctly
Used gestures that reinforced my ideas
Paused at key points

USE OF COURTEOUS LANGUAGE

Exercise 1

Failed to use ‘thank you’ after being given the bar of soap.
Failed to use ‘please’ when asking to be given the bar of soap.
Failed to use ‘excuse me’ to get the shopkeeper’s attention.

Exercise 2

She has used ‘please’ when asking John to fill the address.
She has used ‘would’ in asking questions.

IMPORTANCE OF RESPECTING PERSONAL SPACE

He could have failed to:

Speak in a low voice during the talk.
Maintain the physical distance between the two of us at the table.
Resist leaning on my shoulder or chest.
Resist eavesdropping on my phone conversation

READING FOR FORM ONE

READING SKILLS

SILENT READING

It involves reading without pronouncing the words out loud.
It is reading to oneself.

Bad Silent Reading Habits

The following are some of the bad silent habits which you must try to break:

(a) Moving your lips when you read

(b) Vocalizing
Vocalizing means that you are pronouncing words in the voice box of the throat without making sounds. This also slows your reading rate to that of speaking.

(c) Regressing out of habit
Regressing means rereading a word, phrase, or sentence out of habit and not because of need. Sometimes, it is necessary to reread something, especially in a difficult passage. But habitual, unnecessary regressing really slows you down.

(d) Reading one word at a time

(e) Moving of the head as one reads.

(f) Pointing the words as you read.

USING A DICTIONARY

Reasons for using a dictionary

A dictionary is a very important tool for anyone who is learning a new language. With a good dictionary you can do the following:

look up the meaning of an English word you see or hear
find the English translation of a word in your language
check the spelling of a word
check the plural of a noun or past tense of a verb
find out other grammatical information about a word
find the synonym or antonym of a word
look up the collocations of a word
check the part of speech of a word
find out how to say a word
find out about the register of a word
find examples of the use of a word in natural language

To be a good dictionary user, however, it is not enough to know what to use the dictionary for. You must also decide which is the best dictionary for any of the purposes listed above.

Finding words quickly

You will need to know the English alphabet perfectly.
Use the guide words at the top of each dictionary page.

Finding the right meaning of an English word

Very often when you look up a new English word, you find that it has more than one meaning. If you are not sure which one is correct, check through all the meanings and find the one that makes most sense in the context where you found the word.

Finding the right spelling

Another problem you may have is when you want to check your spelling but you can’t find the word you’re looking for. Here is what to do:

If you are sure of the first few letters, just look down the page until you find the right spelling.
If you are not sure of the first few letters, try some other possibilities. You know for example that some words that start with an -n sound have p as their first letter; e.g. . So if you can’t find the word under N, try looking in the P pages.

USING THE LIBRARY
When you walk into a library, there are many resources at your fingertips. You just need to know what to use, how to use it, and when to ask for help.

Different Types of Libraries to Use

Depending on the topic you need to study, you might find that different libraries might serve you better.

The different types of libraries include:

Public: This library is the typical library working to make sure the local community has the books it needs without having to charge anyone to read them.
Home library
Class library.
School library

Using the library is easy and it only takes a little direction from you in order to fully realize how many books can help you with your topic of study.

Consulting the Librarian

At times, you may not know where to begin with a research topic. If you are not sure where to go or what questions to ask, it can help to bring in a third party who is not attached to your research: the librarian.

Talking to the librarian will help have book titles that have been helpful to you. If you already have found helpful books, show the librarian so they can look for similar books in the stacks.

COMPREHENSION SKILLS

SUMMARY AND NOTE-MAKING

SUMMARIES

SUMMARY

An excellent summary is a summary written to show that you have read and understood something.
You will get assignments that ask you to read a certain material and summarize it.

How to produce a summary:

1.Read the material to be summarized and be sure you understand it.

2.Outline the major points.

3.Write a first draft of the summary without looking at the material.

4.Always use paraphrase when writing a summary.

5.Target your first draft for approximately 1/4 the length of the original.

6.Never put any of your own ideas, opinions, or interpretations into the summary. This means you have to be very careful of your word choice.

Write in prose – not point form.

NOTE-MAKING

NOTE MAKING

How to Make Notes

The following tips will come in handy when making notes:

Read the material carefully and thoroughly.
Underline the key sentences as you read. This will help in forming the title.
Make a rough note of the main points in a logical sequence.
Write the final notes.

You should have in mind that a note:

Should be short and to the point.
Contain all the important and relevant information.
Should have information systematically divided and subdivided.
Should have a short title. Avoid long sentences as titles.
Must be written in points only.

Notes Template

TITLE …………………….

………………………………………….
…………………………………………
………………………………………..
………………………………………..

GRAMMAR FOR FORM ONE

PARTS OF SPEECH

NOUNS

COMMON NOUNS
They are simply words that name people, places, things, or ideas.
They are not the actual names.
The word ‘teacher’ is a common noun, but the word ‘Halima’ is not.
A common noun identifies a thing, etc.
Example of common nouns are:
People: teacher, father, secretary, woman, girl, etc
Animals: Tiger, Dog, Cow, etc
Things: Chair, desk, cup, phone, etc
Places: City, town, continent, etc
Ideas: envy, hate, love, pride, etc

How to Capitalize Common Nouns

The simple rule is: don’t capitalize a common noun, unless it is the first word in a sentence, or part of a title.

Examples in Sentences

Let’s go to that hotel.
I visit a town during the holidays.

Exercise

Substitute the underlined word(s) with a common noun. You can add a word before the noun.

John and Nick were taught.
I have visited Asia.
She lives in Nairobi.
We eat at the Hilton.
Have you ever swum in the Nile?
I drive Mercedes Benz.
Everyone went shopping at Tuskys.
Corporal Jones has died.
I come from Rwanda.
I am teach at Alliance.

PROPER NOUNS
A proper noun is a name used for an individual person, thing, or a place.
They always begin in capital letters no matter where they occur in sentences.
Look at the table below.

Common Noun

Proper Noun

Example in a Sentence

Teacher

President

City

Mr. Kamau

Mr. Uhuru Kenyatta

Mombasa

Mr. Kamau is our teacher of English.

Mr Uhuru Kenyatta is in the state house.

Mombasa is the place I go every weekend.

Exercise

Identify proper nouns in the sentences below.

I will take you to Rich’s Palace.
Sarah is the girl I told you about.
Of all the continents, I like Africa the most.
Gracy is the cutest kitten ever.
I am craving Oreos.
I used Tilly in cooking.
Jupiter is one of the planets.
Margaret was a great author.

CONCRETE AND ABSTRACT NOUNS

Concrete Nouns

A concrete noun register to our senses.
You can see, hear, taste, smell, or even feel them.
The examples are:
Table
Ball
House
Rice
Water
Wool

Abstract Nouns

They don’t register to one’s senses.
They are just ideas, feelings, or qualities.
Some examples of abstract nouns include:

Health
Interest
Sleep
Traffic
Advice
Education
Business
Insurance
Happiness
Peace
Knowledge
History
Noise
Intelligence
Anger
Fun
Pride
Confidence
Determination
Law
Laughter

Example in Sentences

Education is the key to life.
All the teacher wanted was a proof.
I will apply once the opportunity presents itself.
They are calling for justice.
You need to change your behaviour.
Love makes the world go round.

Exercise 1

Identify the nouns in the sentences and write whether it they are concrete or abstract.

A man must always have the courage to face every challenge.
No matter what happens, we must not lose hope.
My faith in God is very strong.
A person should buy a beautiful dress.
Have you seen the black dog?
Love is blind.

Exercise 2

Fill the blank with the appropriate form of the word in brackets.

She asked for my _______________ about this book. (advise)
The _________________ in Kenya is not as good as it was 10 years ago. (educate)
The way she answers questions shows she has above average _____________. (intelligent)
She explained the ________________ of physical exercise. (important)
_____________ means different things to different people. (happy)
___________ is all that will help. (confident)
It is _______________ that comes before a fall. (proud)
His ______________ led him to kill Ojwang. (angry)
The composition she wrote showed a high level of ______________. (imagine)
You will die out of ___________. (lonely)

COUNT AND NON COUNT NOUNS

A concrete noun can either be categorized as count or non-count.

Count Nouns

A count noun can be expressed in plural form, normally with an “-s”, for example,
Season – seasons
Dog – dogs
Teacher – teachers

When you look around the classroom, there are things that you can count. What are they? The list of things you can probably see are:
Chairs
Tables
Flag
Textbooks
Desks
Cups
Such nouns can be preceded by appropriate articles, whether singular or plural.

Non-Count Nouns

Also referred to as mass nouns.
Nouns falling under this category are those:
That cannot be counted
That do not have plural forms.
Below are the examples of non-count nouns.

Luggage
Weather
Equipment
Oxygen
Wood
Plastic
Hair
Air
Milk
Juice
Beer
Soccer
Biology
Reading
Glass
Sunshine
Rice
History
News
Mathematics
Electricity
Meat
Furniture

Examples in Sentences

This is school equipment.
Plastic is a non conductor.

PLURAL NOUNS
There are rules for spelling plural nouns.

General Rules for Spelling Plural Nouns

Most nouns add “-s”, for example

Book – books
Pen – pens
Phone – phones

Most nouns that end in “-ch”, “-sh”, “-s”, “-x”, or “-z” add “-ies”, for example,

Church – churches
Box – boxes
Prize – prizes
Bus – buses

Most nouns that end in a consonant and “-y” becomes “-ies”, for example,

Spy – spies
Community – communities
Activity – activities
Country – countries

Most nouns that end in “-f”, or “-fe” add “-ves”, for example,

Elf – elves
Wolf – wolves
Half – halves
Knife – knives
Scarf – scarves

Some nouns that end in a consonant and “o”, add “-es”, for example,

Tomato – tomatoes
Buffalo – buffaloes
Volcano – volcanoes
Hero – heroes
Mosquito – mosquitoes

Some nouns only change their vowels, for example,

Goose – geese
Man – men
Mouse – mice
Tooth – teeth

There are those that do not change at all, for example,

Deer
Species
Fish
Sheep
There are a few nouns that have plural forms which are left from old English, for example,
Child – children
Ox – oxen
Then there are those of Latin origin. They are like:
Antenna – antennae
Appendix – appendices, appendixes
Cactus – cacti
Stadium – stadia, stadiums
Terminus – termini, terminuses
Referendum – referenda, referendums
Index – indices, indexes
Formula – formulae, formulas
Curriculum – curricula, curriculums

ARTICLES

An article is a kind of adjective.
It is used with a noun and gives some information about that noun.
There are two articles:
A
The
The article “a” has a form “an”.
Article “a” is known as the indefinite article. It is called indefinite since the noun it goes with is indefinite or general.
The form “an” is used when the noun it precedes begins with a vowel.
The article “a” has the same meaning as number “one”. For example, one can say:

I have bought a pen. Or

I have bought one pen.

The article “the” is definite article.
A definite article indicates a specific thing. Can you identify the difference between the pair of sentences below?
I bought a pen.
I bought the pen.

The second sentence shows that I bought a particular pen, and not any other.

The article “the” is used with count nouns when:
We use the noun a second and subsequent times.
The listener knows what you are referring to.

Exercise

Fill in the blank with appropriate article. Leave the space blank if no article is needed.

I have to eat ______________ apple today.
She has __________ dog at home.
My son has learnt how to play __________ piano.
Tom likes to play ______________ basketball.
There is ___________ new book on the table.
___________ teacher is late this morning.
___________ ink in my pen is black.
She speaks _________ Japanese.
What ___________ expensive bike!
He is _____________ honest person.

PRONOUNS

PERSONAL PRONOUNS

They represent specific people or things.
They are used depending on:
Number: whether singular or plural
Person: whether first, second, or third persons
Gender: whether male, female, or neuter
Case : whether in the case of subject or object

Number versus Person

Number	First Person	Second Person	Third Person
Singular	I	You	He/she/it
Plural	We	You	They

Gender versus Person

Person	Gender
Person	Male	Female	Neuter
First person
Second person
Third person	He	She	It

Case

The pronouns used as subjects are:
I
We
He
She
It
They
You
The pronouns below are used as objects:
Me
Us
Him
Her
It
You
Them

Examples in Sentences

I like it.
You are my best friend.
She is running from the truth.
Get me that book please.
They are interviewing them.

Exercise 1

Fill the blanks with correct forms of pronouns in brackets.

__________ am the new class prefect. (me)
___________ doesn’t matter. (they)
Does Martha like ____________? (he)
Killion helped ___________. (I)
Did you see ___________ ? (she)

Exercise 2

Replace the underlined words with an appropriate pronoun.

The old gate doesn’t look good.
Tom and Mary went to school.
The dog bit the doctor and the chief.
Moses runs faster than Rebecca.
Phiona and Ruth played doubles.
Christine is clever.
I brought the dress.
Antony drove Junet and me.

POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS

We use possessive pronouns to refer to a specific person or people, or thing or things that belong to a person or people, or things.
Just like personal pronouns, they are used depending on:
Number
Person
Gender
Case

Number and Person

In singular we use:

Mine – first Person

Yours — second person

His/hers/its – third person

In plural, use:

Ours – first person

Yours – second person

Theirs – third person

Gender

For male gender, the pronoun below are used:

His

For female gender use, hers

Case

A possessive pronoun can either be a subject or object.

Examples in Sentences

Mine is that one.
This one is mine.
The cars are yours.
Yours are those ones over there.
Hers has been stolen.
This building is ours.

Exercise

Complete each sentence with the possessive pronoun form of the word(s) underlined.

Martha did _____________ homework in time.
Have you got ___________ money.
I like your name. Do you like ___________ ?
Hector and Emmy have seen your bag. Have you seen ____________?
Jane, my flowers are dying. ____________ are good.
I have come with my sister. ___________ name is Alice.
Sophie and Gerges study Science. _____________ teacher is kind.
We love __________ new boss.
He is in __________ house.
Are you and your friend enjoying __________ weekend?
The cat has bit ___________ tail.
Right has a brother. ___________ is 10 years old.

REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS

They are special kind of pronouns.
A reflexive pronoun is used when the object of a sentence is the same as the subject.
Each personal pronoun has its own reflexive form.
The table below shows personal pronouns with their equivalent reflexive pronouns.

Personal Pronoun	Reflexive Pronoun
I	Myself
You (singular)	Yourself
You (plural)	Yourselves
He	Himself
She	Herself
It	Itself
We	Ourselves
They	Themselves

When Reflexive Pronouns are Used

Reflexive pronouns are used when:

The object and the subject are similar. For example,
She bit herself.

The subject she and the object herself are similar.

They betrayed
Matthew likes himsel
They are used as the object of prepositions. In the sentences below, the words underlined are the prepositions and the ones in boldface are the objects of those prepositions.
Young bought a pencil for himself.
Halima mopped the room by herself.
The mad man talks to himself.
They are also used when emphasizing the subjects. Examples
I ate all the rice myself. This means no one else had any.
Dan will wash the clothes himself. This means she will be helped by no one.

Can you differentiate between the pair of sentences below?

She bought the pen herseif.

She bought the dress for herself.

Exercise

Fill the correct form of reflexive pronoun for each blank space.

In the evening, we went to the market to buy _________________ food to cook.
I don’t know whether they went to school or whether they taught ______________ .
If you hurt ______________ , don’t cry to anyone.
This cat caught the rat _____________ .
Whenever I see ___________ in a mirror, I smile to ___________ .
That little duck is washing _____________ in the pond.
Jonathan ate all the food _____________ .
Good evening everyone? Please make _____________ comfortable.
Since the school is their father’s, they give _______________ break whenever they feel like.
Mary bought the dress for _____________ .

FUNCTIONS OF PRONOUNS

A pronoun can be used where a noun or a noun phrase can be used in a sentence.
Pronouns perform the following functions in a sentence:
As the Subject of a Verb
The subject of verb is that which performs that action.
Some of the pronouns used as subjects of the verbs are:

She

They

We etc

Examples in Sentences

He is my best friend.
You are the one I saw.

They are the school administrators.

As the Object of A Verb
An object is the recipient of the action.
Some object pronouns include:

You

Him

Her

Them

It etc

Examples in Sentences

Richard escorted him.
He separated them.

I saw her.
As the Object of a preposition

An object of preposition immediately follows the preposition.

Examples

I will think about it.
I bought it for him.

VERBS

A verb is a word that shows an action, state, or even an occurrence.
There are two main verb types:
Lexical verbs
Auxiliary verbs
In this section, we shall study Lexical verbs.

LEXICAL VERBS

A lexical verb is the main verb in a sentence.
It does not need a helping verb as it carries the meaning.
The examples are:
Talk
Sing
Run
Jump
Eat
Go etc
Depending on how they form their past tense and past participle forms, they are grouped as regular or irregular verbs.

Examples in Sentences

I work at the station.
She drives a fancy car.
I gave you all I had.

REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS

Verbs are subdivided into regular and irregular verbs depending on how their past tense and past participles are formed.
A regular verb adds –ed or –d to the end of the base forms.

Examples of Regular Verbs

Verb

Past Tense

Past Participle

Call

Plan

Jump

Kill

Fill

Called

Planned

Jumped

killed

filled

Called

Planned

Jumped

Killed

filled

Examples In Sentences

He jumped over the fence.
He killed the cat.

For Irregular verbs, there is no formula that predict their past tense and past participle forms.
They include:

Verb

Past Tense

Past Participle

Sweep

Cut

Come

Meet

Is/am

Swept

Cut

Came

Went

Met

Was

Swept

Cut

Came

Went

Met

Been

Examples in Sentences

He ran towards the river.
Have you repaid the loan?
I have swum.

TENSES

SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE

The simple present tense is used to express:

Habitual actions, for example,
She eats fish.
She washes her clothes every week.

We see movies every evening.

Some general truths, for example,
Water boils at 100 degrees.
The month of April has 30 days.

Points to Remember on The Simple Present Third Person Singular

The verb usually ends in –s, for example,

He runs
She runs

It runs
Negative and question are “does”, for example,

He does not run.
Does he run?

She does not run.

Does she run?

In case of negative and question, the next verb after “does” does not add an -s

Present Simple Tense – Negative

A negative sentence is usually formed by using “not”.

Examples in Sentences

I do not like it.
We do not like it.

You do not like it.

She does not like it.
He does not like it.
They do not like it.

Present Simple Tense – Questions

The questions are formed by using either “do” or “does” at the beginning.

Examples in Sentences

Do you like it?
Do we like it?

Do you like it?

Does she like it?
Does he like it?
Do they like it?

Exercise 1

Rewrite each sentence below following the instruction in brackets. Do not change the meaning of the sentence.

I live in Maragua. (begin with: do)
Right comes to school daily. (begin: does)
She does not play rugby. (do not use: not)
The train leaves at 8.00 am. (use: 9.00 am)
Does he forget his wallet? (begin: he)

Exercise 2

Use the correct form of the verb in brackets to complete each of the following sentences.

I ______________ fifteen years old now. (be)
Moureen ______________ at Githurai. (live)
Emilly ___________ dinner for them. (cook)
The students ____________ lunch at 1.00 pm. (eat)
My grandmother ____________ medicine when she is sick. (take)
It normally ____________ here in April. (rain)
It _____________ in May as much as it does in March. (rain)
They ___________ French twice a week. (study)
Mr Gregory ______________ Geography at Lukenya High School.
George _____________ to church every Sunday. (go)

SIMPLE PAST TENSE

A simple past tense is used to talk about a completed action in a time before now.
The time of action can be in the recent past or the distant past.

Examples

I walked all the way to school.
We saw them at the restaurant.
They played the piano.
She ate her lunch at 1.00 pm.

How to Form the Simple Past Tense

Simple Past in Negative Statement

The pattern here is:

Subject+Auxiliary+not

She did not call.

Simple Past in Interrogative

Did she call you?

Exercise

Fill in the correct form of word in brackets to complete each sentence.

I ______________ to the theatre last week. (go)
It _________ interesting. (be)
I __________ three sites last year. (visit)
It ____________ as it did the the previous week. (rain)
She ____________ a single card from her relatives.(receive)
We ___________ to a new house last month. (move)
They ____________ us pizza yesterday. (bring)
I ____________ a big lion. (see)
Where _______________ your last weekend? (spend/you)
It was cold, so I _________________ off my coat. (take)
Since the door was opened, the bird _____________ into the house.
The car wasn’t expensive. It _____________ very much. (cost)

ADJECTIVES

COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE FORMS

Comparatives

The comparative form of an adjective is used to compare two people or things. Example

He is quicker than Ngure.

Superlatives

The superlative form of an adjective is used to compare more than two people or things. Example

He is the quickest of the three.

Ways of Making Comparative and Superlative Adjectives

Adjectives with One Syllable

In general, if an adjective has one syllable, then –er or –r for comparative and –est or –st for supelatives are added to the adjective. Examples

Adjective

Comparative Form

Superlative Form

Hot

Tall

Small

Large

Thin

Nice

Hotter

Taller

Smaller

Larger

Thinner

Nicer

Hottest

Tallest

Smallest

Largest

Thinnest

Nicest

Adjectives with Two Syllables
There are those that simply add –er or –r for comparative, and –est or –st for superlative. Examples

Feeble Feebler Feeblest

some use theword “more” for comparative, and “most” for superlative forms. Examples

famous more famous most famous

There are those that can do with either –er or –r , or more for comparative and –est or –st , or most for superlative. They are special adjectives.Examples

Clever Cleverer (more clever) Cleverest (most clever)
Simple Simpler (more simple) Simplest (most simple)

Other special adjectives are:
Quiet
Polite
Pleasant
Likely
Commonly
Sure
Adjectives with Three or More Syllables

Word more for comparative and most for superlatives are used. Examples

Interesting moreinteresting most interesting

Attractive more attractive most attractive

Irregular adjectives

Some adjectives have Irregular comparative and superlative forms. Examples

Adjective

Comparative Form

Superlative Form

Bad

Good

Little

Much

Worse

Better

Less

Worst

Best

Least

Most

REGULAR AND IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES

The way an adjective make comparative and superlative forms is what determines whether it is regular or irregular.

Regular Adjectives

A regular adjective adds –er or more in comparative form, and –est or most for superlatives.
The table below illustrates this.

Adjective

Comparative

Superlative

Small

Nice

Pretty

Beautiful

Smaller

Nicer

Prettier

More beautiful

Smallest

Nicest

Prettiest

Most beautiful

Irregular Adjectives

They have completely different forms.
It is not easy to predict their comparative and superlative forms.
Examples are:
Good
Bad etc

GRADABLE AND NON GRADABLE ADJECTIVES

Gradable Adjectives

A gradable adjective has different degrees.
You can say “very hot” or “a bit hot”. Hot is therefore a gradable adjective. Other gradable adjectives are:
Cold
Warm
Tall
Nice etc

There are grading adverbs that can be used with gradable adjectives. They include:
A bit
Very
Extremely
Quite
Really
So etc

Examples in Sentnces

It is extremely cold
This novel is quite interesting.

The girl is very beautiful.

She is reasonably popular.

Non-Gradable Adjectives

They do not have different degrees.
Some examples of non gradable adjectives are:

Excellent
Impossible
Digital
Domestic
Unique
Absolutely
Nearly
Chemical
Totally

One cannot say “very dead” or “really dead”. The adjective “dead” is thus, a non-gradable adjective.
A grading adverb cannot be used with the non-gradable adjectives.

Example in a Sentence

The dead relative will be buried soon.

ADVERBS

ADVERBS OF MANNER

They tell us the manner in which the action happened, happens, or will happen.
The examples are:
Carefully
Slowly
Loudly
Easily etc

Examples in Sentences

She answered it correctly.
The problem was solved easily.
He drives
He walked quickly.
He runs fast.

ADVERBS OF TIME

An adverb of time tell us when an action happens.
An adverb of time can also tell us for how long that action occurred. For example, three months.
Some examples of adverbs of time are:
Today
Next week
Late
Early
Morning
Last year
Two months time, etc

Examples in Sentences

I saw it yesterday.
He came to school late.

She watched the whole day.

ADVERBS OF FREQUENCY

These are adverbs that answer questions “How frequently?” or “how often?”.
They tell us how often something happens.
There are two types of adverbs of frequency:

Adverbs of definite frequency, for example,

Monthly
Daily
Hourly
Weekly
Yearly
Every minute
Twice a month
Once
Three times a day, etc

Examples in Sentences

Employees pay taxes monthly.
The storekeeper checks the store every day.
I review my notes every week.

Adverbs of indefinite frequency, for example,

Never
Sometimes
Often
Always
Seldom
Frequently
Occasionally
Usually

Examples in Sentences

She is never
I often do my assignment.

They sometimes visit me.

PREPOSITIONS

SIMPLE PREPOSITIONS

A preposition joins words together and show the relationship between the different parts of a sentence.
The following are the simple prepositions with examples in sentences:

In, on, at

He is in the house.

The cup is on the table.

He teaches at a school in Wajir.

Above, below

Most students scored above 50.

Few students scored below 4o.

Over, under

Don’t jump over the fence.

The cat is hiding under the bed.

Around, through

The flowers we planted around the house.

The spear went through his body.

Before, after

I will see him before lunch.

He is leaving after lunch.

To, from

I am coming from Limuru.

I am going to Nairobi.

About, by

Have you read the story about an ogre?

The story was written by Kendagor.

With, without

He didn’t want to go with us.

We went without him.

Between, among

This is a secret between you and me.

There is no secret among many.

Inside, outside

The bottle is inside the box.

The spoon is outside the box.

PREPOSITIONS COMBINATIONS

Adjective+Preposition

Specific prepositions are used after certain adjectives. There is no definite rule to ascertain which preposition should be used with which adjective. We simply need to learn them.

Here is a list of some commonly used adjectives and the prepositions that normally follow them:

ADJECTIVE	PREPOSITION
accustomed	To
Afraid	Of
Accused	Of
acquainted	With
Addicted	To
Annoyed	about/with/at
Allergic	To
Amazed	at/by
Anxious	About
appreciated	For
Ashamed	Of
associated	With
astonished	at/by
Aware	Of
Angry	With
Afraid	Of
Attached	To
Bad	At
Based	On
beneficial	To
Boastful	For
Bored	With
Brilliant	At
Busy	With
Capable	Of
Careful	with/about/of
Certain	About
characteristic	Of
Clever	At
connected	With
conscious	Of
Content	With
Crazy	About
Crowded	With
Curious	About
dissatisfied	With
Doubtful	About
Delighted	at/about
Derived	From
Different	From
disappointed	With
Eager	For
Eligible	For
enthusiastic	About
Excellent	in/at
Excited	About
experienced	In
Exposed	To
Envious	Of
Faithful	To
Familiar	With
Famous	For
fed up	With
Free	of/from
frightened	Of
Friendly	With
Fond	Of
Furious	About
Furnished	With
Full	Of
Generous	with/about
Guilty	of/about
Gentle	With
Good	At
Grateful	To
Happy	About
Hopeful	of/about
Identical	with/to
Immune	To
impressed	With
Inferior	To
indifferent	To
Innocent	Of
interested	In
Involved	With
Incapable	Of
Jealous	Of
Kind	To
Keen	On
Late	For
Limited	To
Lucky	At
Nervous	of/about
Notorious	For
Opposed	To
Patient	With
pessimistic	About
Pleased	With
Polite	To
Popular	With
Presented	With
Proud	Of
Punished	For
Puzzled	by/about
Qualified	For
Ready	For
Related	To
Relevant	To
respectful	For
responsible	For
Rid	Of
Sad	About
Safe	From
Satisfied	With
Scared	Of
Sensitive	To
Serious	About
Sick	Of
Similar	To
Shocked	By
Skilful	At
Slow	At
Sorry	for/about
successful	In
Suitable	For
Sure	of/about
Superior	To
Surprised	At
suspicious	Of
sympathetic	With
terrible	At
terrified	Of
tired	Of
thankful	to/for
trilled	With
troubled	With
typical	Of
unaware	Of
upset	About
used	To
wrong	with/about
worried	About

Examples in Sentences

1. It was nice of you to help me.

2. Why are you so angry about it? They were furious with me for not inviting them to my party.

3. I was disappointed with the book she bought me.

4. I was pleased with the present you gave me. Were you disappointed with your examination result

5. They have been astonished by something.

6. Everyone was surprised by /at the news.

7. Are you excited about going on holiday next week?

8. Are you afraid of dogs?

9. I’m not ashamed of what I did.

10. I’m not very good at driving big cars.

11. Your composition is full of errors.

12. Your name is similar to mine.

Verb +Preposition Combination

Some verbs need a preposition before an object or another verb.
These kinds are called dependent prepositions and they are followed by a noun or a gerund (‘ing’ form).
Here are some other verbs with their dependent prepositions.

account for

accuse SO of ST

adapt to

add SO/ST to SO/ST

add to

adjust to

admit ST to SO

admit to

agree on

agree to

agree with

apologize to SO for ST

appeal to SO for ST

approve of

argue with SO about SO/ST

argue with SO over ST

arrange for SO (to do something)

arrest SO for ST

arrive at (a place)

ask for

base on

be absent from (a place)

be accustomed to

be acquainted with

be addicted to ST

be afraid of

be angry at SO for ST

be angry with SO for ST

be annoyed at SO for ST

be annoyed with SO for ST

be anxious about ST

be associated with

be aware of

be blessed with

be bored by

be bored with

be capable of ST

be cluttered with ST

be committed to

be composed of

be concerned about

be connected to

be connected with

be content with

be convinced of ST

be coordinated with ST

be crowded in (a building or room)

be crowded with (people)

be dedicated to

be devoted to

be disappointed in

be disappointed with

be discouraged by

be discouraged from (doing something)

be discriminated against

be divorced from SO

be done with ST

be dressed in

be encouraged with

be engaged in ST

be engaged to SO

be envious of

be equipped with ST

be excited about

be exposed to

be faced with

be faithful to

be familiar with

be famous for

be filled with

be finished with

be fond of

be friendly to SO

be friendly with SO

be frightened by

be frightened of

be furnished with ST

be grateful to SO for ST

be guilty of ST

be happy about ST

be innocent of ST

be interested in

be involved in ST

be involved with

be jealous of

be known for ST

be limited to

be made from ST

be made of (material)

be married to

be opposed to

be patient with SO

be pleased with

be polite to SO

be prepared for

be protected from

be proud of

be related to

be relevant to

be remembered for ST

be responsible for

be satisfied with

be scared of

be terrified of

be thankful for

be tired from (doing something)

be tired of (doing something)

be worried about

beg for

begin with

believe in

belong to

benefit from

blame SO for ST

blame ST on SO

boast about

borrow ST from SO

care about

care for

catch up with

cater to

charge SO for ST

charge SO with ST

choose between SO/ST and SO/ST

chose ST from ST

collide with

come from

comment on

communicate with SO

compare SO/ST to SO/ST

compare SO/ST with SO/ST

compete with

complain about

compliment SO on ST

concentrate on

concern SO with ST

confess to

confuse SO/ST with SO/ST

congratulate SO on ST

consent to ST

consist of

contribute to ST

convict SO of ST

cope with

correspond with SO

count on

cover with

crash into

cure SO of ST

deal with

decide against

decide between SO/ST and SO/ST

decide on

dedicate ST to SO

demand ST from SO

depend on

derive ST from ST

deter SO from ST

devote ST to SO

differ from

disagree with

disapprove of

discourage SO from ST

discuss ST with SO

distinguish between SO/ST and SO/ST

distinguish SO/ST from SO/ST

distract SO from ST

dream about

dream of

dress SO in ST

drink to

elaborate on ST

emerge from ST

escape from (a place)

exchange SO/ST for SO/ST

exclude SO from ST

excuse SO for ST

expel SO from (a place)

experiment on

explain ST to SO

feel about

feel like

fight about

fight against

fight for

fight with

forget about

forgive SO for ST

gamble on

gawk at

gaze at

get back from (a place)

get married to SO

get rid of

get through with

get tired of

get used to

give ST to SO

glare at

gloat at

grieve for

gripe at SO

grumble at SO about ST

happen to

harp on

hear about

hear from SO

hear of

help SO with ST

hide ST from SO

hinder SO/ST from ST

hinge on

hope for

insist on

insure against

interfere in ST

interfere with ST

introduce SO/ST to SO/ST

invest in

invite SO to

involve SO/ST in ST

jabber about

joke about

joke with SO about SO/ST

jot down ST

laugh about

laugh at

learn about

lend ST to SO

listen for

listen to

long for

look at

look forward to

meet with SO

mistake SO/ST for SO/ST

nod at

nod to

object to

operate on

participate in ST

pay for

persist in

plan on

praise SO for ST

pray for

prefer SO/ST to SO/ST

prepare for

present SO with ST

prevent SO/ST from (doing something)

prohibit SO from (doing something)

provide for

provide SO with ST

provide SO/ST for SO

punish SO for ST

react to

recover from ST

refer to ST

relate to

rely on

remind SO of SO/ST

reply to

rescue SO from SO/ST

resign from ST

respond to

result in ST

retire from ST

save SO from ST

search for

sentence SO to ST

separate SO/ST from SO/ST

share ST with SO

shout at

show ST to SO

smile at SO

speak to SO about SO/ST

specialize in ST

spend (money/time) on

stand for

stare at

stem from

stop SO from (doing something)

subject SO to ST

subscribe to

substitute SO/ST for SO/ST

subtract ST from ST

succeed at ST

succeed in (doing something)

suffer from

suspect SO of ST

take advantage of

take care of

talk about

talk to

tell SO about ST

thank SO for ST

think about

think of

toast to

translate ST into (a language)

trust SO with ST

turn to

use ST for ST

vote against

vote for

wait for

warn about

waste (money/time) on

wish for

work for

work on

worry about

write about

write to SO

yap about

yearn for

Exercise 1

Fill the blank spaces with the most appropriate prepositions.

She has placed the cup _____________ the table.
I will allow you go _________ the field.
She is singing _________ her room.
Is he ________ home now?
He lives _________ Nairobi.
Don’t be late _________ class.
Compare your points __________ your friend’s.
Are the new student ________ Ethiopia?
Rich is still ________ vacation.
My daughter’s birthday is ________ May.

Answers

On
To
In
At
In
For
With
From
On
In

Exercise 2

Complete the sentences with the most appropriate prepositions.

It was stupid …………………her to go out without a coat.
Everyone was pleased ………………….the marks they scored.
I am bored ………………..singing every morning.
Are you interested ………………..sports?
Kenya is famous ……………… her athletes.
I will be happy to see married ……………. Gregory.
The town is crowded with people.
You will be held responsible …………………anything that happens.
She is sorry ……………….. her behavior last night.
You should be sorry …………………..missing the lesson.
Jemimah is fond …………………. dogs.
I am keen ………….. leave this school.
What are you excited ……………..?
It seems she is upset ………………something.
You shouldn’t be worried …………………anything as long as I am around.

Answers

Of
With
With
In
For
To
With
For
About
For
Of
On
About
About
About

CONJUNCTIONS

COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

A coordinating conjunction connects words, phrases, and clauses.
And, but, for, nor, or, so, and yet are the known coordinating conjunctions.

Examples in Sentences

This is a beautiful girl, but a difficult one to convince.
It was cold, so I put on my jacket.

This tea is thick and sweet.

Do you like white rice, or brown rice?

Functions of Coordinating Conjunctions

Conjunction	Function	Example in a Sentence
And	Joins two similar ideas	Jane and Mary are in form one.
But	Joins two contrasting ideas	He drives slowly, but sure.
Or	Joins two alternative ideas	We can go to Naivasha, or stay here and watch news.
So	Shows the second idea is the result of the first	I was sick, so I did not go to school.
Nor	Joins two negative alternatives.	He doesn’t wake up early, nor do I.
For	Give a reason	I was punished, for I was late.
Yet	Joins two contrasting ideas (means “but”)	I was punished, yet I arrived early.

Exercise

Join each pair of sentences with an appropriate coordinating conjunction.

I love to travel. I hate travelling by bus.
You should go to bed now. You will be tired tomorrow.
The bus stopped. Two passengers got out of it.
Helen was angry with Jane. Helen went out to cool down.
I arrived at school late. I left home early.

Answers

I love to travel but I hate travelling by bus.
You should go to bed now, or you will be tired tomorrow.
The bus stopped and two passengers got out of it.
Helen was angry with Jane, so she went out to cool down.
I arrived at school late, yet I left home early.

PHRASES

A phrase is a group of words without a subject and a verb and which does not make sense on its own.
There are various types of phrases. They include:
Noun phrases
Verb phrases
Adjective phrases
Adverb phrases
Prepositional phrases
At your level, we will only study noun phrases.

NOUN PHRASES

A noun phrase is a group of words that plays role of a noun and has a noun has the head word (main word).
Look at the example below.
I saw Bingo. The word in bold is a noun
I saw your dog. In boldface, is the noun phrase that has replaced the noun in above sentence.

Examples of Noun Phrases

The new car

My old shirt

The best car safety device

Constituents of a Noun Phrase

A noun phrase consists of:
A determiner, which can be an article, a number, or an adjective.
Modifiers, which can be an adjective, or combinations of adjectives.

Modifiers can either be premodifier if it comes before the main noun, or post modifier if it follows the noun.
Determiners precede modifiers.
Study the noun phrases.

Phrase

Determiner

Pre modifier

Main noun

Post Modifier

The tall woman

The longest river

Your sister

Any big supermarket nearby

The

Your

Any

Tall

Longest

Big

Woman

River

Sister

Supermarket

Nearby

Exercise

Underline the noun phrase in each of the sentences below.

Did you see the tall man?
He called all the stubborn students.
He wishes to see the president.
He bought her a beautiful white blouse.
An horse prefers living in dark stables.
It is disgraceful to write such rubbish.
The people’s president is in Mombasa.
The girl in blue skirt is my sister.
The soldiers are true heroes.
My best friend is Teris.

SIMPLE SENTENCES

A simple sentence has one clause —independent

SENTENCE STRUCTURE (SUBJECT, PREDICATE)
A simple sentence has the formula:

Subject + Predicate

Look at the example below.

This desk is mine.

This desk – Subject
Is mine – the predicate

A subject is the one doing the action.
Predicate is the part of the sentence which talks about the subject and which has a verb.
The predicate must contain a verb. The other constituents of a predicate can be an adverb, adjective, pronoun, etc.
Can you identify the subject and predicate in each of the sentences below?
She came to see me.
Njoroge was here.
I saw them dancing.
This is the cheapest dress in town.
You are a big fool.

TYPES OF SENTENCES

INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES

An interrogative sentence is used to ask questions.
There are various question types:
Yes/no questions
Alternative questions
Tag questions
w/h questions

Yes/No Questions

They are answered with yes or no as answers.
Examples are:
Did you score everything?
Have you seen it?

Alternative Questions

There are options two to be chosen from.
Examples are:
Would you like to take tea, or coffee?
Do you want a red pen, or blue one?

Tag Questions

There is the statement part, which is followed by a comma, and then the question part.
Examples are:
She is the thief, isn’t she?
It does not smell good, does it?

W/H Questions

The first word start with the two letters “w and h”.
Those words used for asking these questions are: who, where, which, how, why, what
Examples
Who sent you?
Where do you live?

Exercise

Form three different question types from the sentence:

You stole my cap.

Answer

Did you steal my red cap? Yes/no
Who stole my red cap? w/h
You stole me red cap, didn’t you?

IMPERATIVE SENTENCES

An imperative sentence issues a request or a direct command.
Usually, imperative sentences begin with verbs.
Depending on the strength of the emotion, and the forcefulness of the command, it can end in either a full stop (.) or an exclamation mark (!).

Examples

Complete your assignment by afternoon!
Kindly open the door.

Turn left at the cross road.

End Punctuation Marks with Imperative Sentences

If the command is forceful, use an exclamation mark (!). for example,

Leave now!

Open the door!

If the command is polite, or in the form of advice, put a period (.). examples,

Please get me my book.

Leave the door open.

EXCLAMATORY SENTENCES

An exclamatory sentence expresses emotion.
The emotion can be of love, happiness, confusion, anger, etc.
Usually ends with an exclamation mark.
Use the word “what” or “how”before a noun.

Examples

What a day!
What awful plastic!
What funny people they are!
What a match!

Exercise

Rewrite each sentence beginning with the word “what” or “how”.

He is a foolish man.
This is a pleasant day.
That is clever of you.
They are lovely flowers.
He came early

Answers

What a foolish man!
What a pleasant day
How clever of you!
What lovely flowers!
How early he came!

AFFIRMATIVE SENTENCES

There are two types:

Declarative
Negative

DECLARATIVE SENTENCES/

Used to make statements.
End with a full stop or period (.).
Here are examples of declarative sentences.
My name is George.
He brings me chocolate.
She visited last year.
I will leave in the evening.

NEGATIVE SENTENCES

A negative sentence states that something is untrue.
A negative adverb is added to negate the validity of the sentence.
A negative statement is formed by adding the word “not” to the first auxiliary verb. Examples
I did not abuse you.
This novel does not have a good ending.
You are not among the lucky ones.
Dan did not steal from me, it was you.

Exercise

Negate the following sentences.

She has a bag.
I am sick.
He sells flowers.
They work there.
She writes good compositions.
It is interesting.

Answers

She does not have a bag.
I am not sick.
He doesn’t sell flowers.
They don’t work there.
She doesn’t write good compositions.
It is not interesting.

ANSWERS

PARTS OF SPEECH

NOUNS

COMMON NOUNS

The students were taught
I have visited a continent.
She lives in the city.
We eat in the hotel.
Have you ever swum in the river?
I drive a car.
Everyone went shopping at the supermarket.
A soldier is dead.
I come from a country.
I teach at a school.

PROPER NOUNS

I will take you to Rich’s Palace.
Sarah is the girl I told you about.
Of all the continents, I like Africa the most.
Gracy is the cutest kitten ever.
I am craving Oreos.
I used Tilly in cooking.
Jupiter is one of the planets.
Margaret was a great author.

CONCRETE NOUNS ABSTRACT NOUNS

Exercise 1

A man must always have the courage to face every challenge.

Man – concrete

Courage – abstract

No matter what happens, we must not lose hope.

Hope – abstract

My faith in God is very strong.

Faith – abstract

God – concrete

A person should buy a beautiful dress.

Person, dress – concrete

Have you seen the black dog?

Dog – concrete

Love is blind.

Love – abstract

Blind – concrete

Exercise 2

Advice
Education
Intelligence
Importance
Happiness
Confidence
Pride
Anger
Imagination
Loneliness

NUMBER

ARTICLES

An
A
The
No article
A
The
The
No article
An
An

PRONOUNS

PERSONAL PRONOUNS

Exercise 1

Exercise 2

The old gate doesn’t look good.

It doesn’t look good.

Tom and Mary went to school.

They went to school.

The dog bit the doctor and the chief.

It bit them.

Moses runs faster than Rebecca.

He runs faster than Rebecca.

Phiona and Ruth played doubles.

They played doubles.

Christine is clever.

She is clever.

I brought the dress.

I brought it.

Antony drove Junet and me.

Anthony drove us.

POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS

Her
Your
Mine
Theirs
Yours
Her
Their
Our
His
Your
Its
His

REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS

Ourselves
Themselves
Yourself
Itself
Myself, myself
Itself
Himself
Yourselves
Themselves
Herself

PHRASES

NOUN PHRASES

Did you see the tall man?
He called all the stubborn students.
He wishes to see the president.
He bought her a beautiful white blouse.
An horse prefers living in dark stables.
It is disgraceful to write such rubbish.
The people’s president is in Mombasa.
The girl in blue skirt is my sister.
The soldiers are true heroes.
My best friend is Teris.

WRITING FOR FORM 1

SPELLING

SPELLING RULES

The following rules will help you spell words correctly.

Rule 1: “I before E except after C”;

achieve, believe, bier, brief, hygiene, grief, thief, friend, grieve, chief, fiend, patience, pierce, priest
ceiling, conceive, deceive, perceive, receipt, receive, deceit, conceit

Exceptions

neighbor, freight, beige, sleigh, weight, vein, and weigh and there are many exceptions to the rule: either, neither, feint, foreign, forfeit, height, leisure, weird, seize, and seizure.

Rule 2: “Dropping Final E”

When adding an ending to a word that ends with a silent e, drop the final e if the ending begins with a vowel:

advancing
surprising

However, if the ending begins with a consonant, keep the final e:

advancement
likeness

(However, if the silent e is preceded by another vowel, drop the e when adding any ending: argument, argued, truly.)

Exceptions: to avoid confusion and mispronunciation, the final e is kept in words such as mileage and words where the final e is preceded by a soft g or c: changeable, courageous, manageable, management, noticeable. (The word management, for example, without that e after the g, would be pronounced with a hard g sound.)

Rule 3: “Dropping Final Y”

When adding an ending to a word that ends with y, change the y to i when it is preceded by a consonant.

supply becomes supplies
worry becomes worried
merry becomes merrier

This does not apply to the ending -ing, however.

crying
studying

Nor does it apply when the final y is preceded by a vowel.

obeyed
saying

Rule 4: “Doubling Final Consonants”

When adding an ending to a word that ends in a consonant, we double that consonant in many situations. First, we have to determine the number of syllables in the word.

Double the final consonant before adding an ending that begins with a vowel when the last syllable of the word is accented and that syllable ends in a single vowel followed by a single consonant.

submit is accented on the last syllable and the final consonant is preceded by a vowel, so we double the t before adding, for instance, an -ing or -ed: submitting, submitted.
flap contains only one syllable which means that it is always accented. Again, the last consonant is preceded by a vowel, so we double it before adding, for instance, an -ing or -ed: flapping, flapped. This rule does not apply to verbs that end with “x,” “w,” “v,” and “y,” consonants that cannot be doubled (such as “box” [boxing] and “snow” [snowing]).
open contains two syllables and the last syllable is preceded by a single vowel, but the accent falls on the first syllable, not the last syllable, so we don’t double the n before adding an ending: opening, opened.
refer contains two syllables and the accent falls on the last syllable and a single vowel precedes the final consonant, so we will double the r before adding an ending, as in referring, referral. The same would apply to begin, as in beginner, beginning.
relent contains two syllables, but the final consonant is preceded by another consonant, not a vowel, so we do not double the t before adding an ending: relented, relenting.
deal looks like flap (above), but the syllable ends in a consonant preceded not by a single vowel, but by two vowels, so we do not double the final l as in dealer and dealing. The same would apply, then, to despair: despairing, despaired.

PUNCTUATION

CAPITALIZATION

Capitalization Rules

Capitalization is the writing of a word with its first letter in uppercase and the remaining letters in lowercase.

Capitalize the first word of a document and the first word after a final punctuation mark (full stop, question mark, exclamation mark).

Capitalize proper nouns—and adjectives derived from proper nouns.

Examples:
he is Brian’s father

In Juja

Capitalization Checklist

Brand names
Companies
Days of the week and months of the year
Holidays
Institutions
the University of Nairobi
Natural and artificial landmarks
the Fourteen Fall, the Mount Kenya
Religions and names of deities
Note: Capitalize the Bible (but biblical). Do not capitalize heaven, hell, the devil, satanic.
Special occasions
the Olympic Games, the Cannes Film Festival
Streets and roads

Capitalize specific geographical regions. Do not capitalize points of the compass.

FINAL PUNCTUATION MARKS

The Period, Full Stop or Point

The period (known as a full stop) is probably the simplest of the punctuation marks to use. You use it like a knife to cut the sentences to the required length.
Generally, you can break up the sentences using the full stop at the end of a logical and complete thought that looks and sounds right to you.

Mark the end of a sentence which is not a question or an exclamation

Examples

Kisumu is the third largest city in kenya.
I am writing you soon.

Indicate an abbreviation

Examples

I will arrive between 6 a.m. and 7 a.m.
We are coming on Fri., Jan. 4.

Period after a single word

Sometimes a single word can form the sentence. In this case you place a fullstop after the word as you would in any other sentence. This is often the case when the subject is understood as in a greeting or a command.

Examples

“come.”
“Stop.”

Periods in numbers

Numbers use periods in English to separate the whole number from the decimal. A period used in a number is also called a “decimal point” and it is read “point” unless it refers to money.

Examples

Sh. 10.50 is its price.
Her weight is 60.60

The Exclamation Mark

The exclamation mark is used to express astonishment, or surprise, or to emphasise a comment or short, sharp phrase. In professional or everyday writing, exclamation marks are used sparingly if at all.

Examples

Help! Help!
That’s unbelievable!
Get out!
Look out!

You can also use exclamation marks to mark a phrase as humourous, ironic or sarcastic.

Examples

What a lovely day! (when it obviously is not a lovely day)
That was clever! (when someone has done something stupid)

The Question Mark

Use the question mark at the end of all direct questions.

Examples

What is your name?
Do you speak Italian?
You’re spanish, aren’t you?

Do not use a question mark for reported questions

Examples

He asked me what my name was.
She asked if I was Spanish.
Ask them where they are going.

The Comma

Use comma to separate phrases, words, or clauses in lists

Ø A series of independent clauses (sentences)

Example

I cried to her, she asked me to stop crying, and afterwards she took me out for lunch..

Ø A series of nouns

Examples

Don’t forget to buy milk, ice cream, and fish.
Gregory, David, and Christine arrived in time.

Ø A series of adjectives

A list of adjectives usually requires commas. However, if an adjective is modifying another adjective you do not separate them with a comma (sentence 3).

Examples

She was young, beautiful, kind, and intelligent.
The house we visited was dark, dreary, and run-down.

Ø A series of verbs

Examples

Tony ran towards me, fell, yelled, and fainted.
The boy leapt, spun, twisted, and dove into the water.

Ø A series of phrases

Examples

The car smashed into the wall, flipped onto its roof, slid along the road, and finally stopped against a tree.
The dog leapt into the air, snatched the Frisbee in its mouth, landed, and ran off into the forest.

More Uses

1. Enclosing details

Use a comma to enclose non-defining relative clauses and other non-essential details and comments. The comma is placed on either side of the insertion.

Examples

China, one of the most powerful nations on Earth, has a huge population.
Goats, unlike cows, do not like grass.

2. Participial phrases

Examples

Hearing the sad news, Fred fainted.
Walking home from school, I met my old friend.

3. Tag questions

Examples

She hates you, doesn’t she?
We have no business together, have we?

STUDY WRITING

MAKING NOTES

How to Make Notes

The following tips will come in handy when making notes:

Read the material carefully and thoroughly.
Underline the key sentences as you read. This will help in forming the title.
Make a rough note of the main points in a logical sequence.
Write the final notes.

You should have in mind that a note:

Should be short and to the point.
Contain all the important and relevant information.
Should have information systematically divided and subdivided.
Should have a short title. Avoid long sentences as titles.
Must be written in points only.

Notes Template

TITLE …………………….

………………………………………….
…………………………………………
………………………………………..
………………………………………..

TAKING NOTES

How to Take Notes

There is no one “right” way to take notes. Very different approaches can be equally effective, depending on the context.
The key thing is to ensure that you remain actively engaged with the material whilst taking notes.
If all you do is copy down what you hear or read, then you won’t actually be learning anything at all. You may not even understand your notes when you come back to review them later!
Do the following:
Be concise
be as neat as possible
use headings and numbered points
use abbreviations/shorthand
Leave spaces in between your notes in case of any additions.
Avoid the following:

copying out sentences or passages verbatim (i.e. word for word)
copying a mass of factual information

After the lesson, rewrite the notes in a more organized way adding details left out.

CREATIVE WRITING

POEMS

Poem Writing Tips

There are a few things to think about before you start writing your poem. The following tips on writing poems will help you get started.

Know your purpose. Know why you are writing a poem and what you want it to do.
Pick a subject. Poems can be written about any topic under the sun.
Avoid clichés. These are sayings that have been overused, like busy as a bee, or blind as a bat.
Use imagery. Paint with your words and use concrete words that appeal to the senses. Abstract words cannot give the reader a good picture of what you are trying to say.
Use similes and metaphors. Similes compare two things, like “you are sweet as honey” and usually use the word “like” or “as.” Metaphors state that one thing is another thing, like “you are a pig.” Things being compared in a metaphor have at least one thing in common but are very different in other ways.
You can also consider using rhyme, alliteration, consonance, etc

IMAGINATIVE COMPOSITIONS

Elements of Imaginative Compositions

In order to write a good story, use these important elements:

a) Characters: Refers to those who act in the story. They should be people, animals or objects that think and talk.
b) Setting: Describes time and place of the story for example: classroom, lakeside, town etc.
c) Plot: Refers to the series of actions that the characters go through as they try to solve a problem. In the plot, we have the:

Introduction: This is usually short. It presents the character, the situation or the problem, and part of the setting.
Development: This simply shows how the situation affects the characters and what they do to try and solve the problem.
Conclusion: This shows the solution of a problem. It is usually short. It may lead to a happy, sad or surprise ending.

When writing a story, remember to organise the flow of your events so that the reader’s interest is maintained throughout the story. The element of suspense should also be created and maintained so that the reader will want to find out what is most likely to happen in your story.

You can create suspense by:

Including mystery
Changing the scene
Creating unexpected events
Including dialogue
Giving surprise ending
Moving from one character to another

PERSONAL WRITING

Diaries
A diary is a written record of things that happen each day.
It is also a record of things you plan to do per day and the time you plan to do so.
A diary is also the book in which you write down things that happen to you on daily basis.

Diaries to Record what is planned to be done

Here, we record things we plan to do.
Let us look at the sample below:

MY DIARY

DAY	DATE	TIME	EVENT
Saturday	23^rd April, 2015	8.00 am 8.15 am 8.30 am 8.40-10.30 10.35am – 12.30pm 1.00 pm 2.00 pm 7.30 pm	Waking up Taking shower Breakfast Reading History Going for skating Lunch Reading the Bible Supper
Sunday	24^th April, 2015	7.00 am 8.00 am 11.00 am 1.00 pm 2.30 pm 4.00 pm 6.00 pm 8.00 pm	Breakfast Attending mass Reading CRE(St Luke’s Gospel) Taking lunch Playing video games Watching movies Writing notes Supper
Monday	25^th April, 2015	7.30 am 8.00 am 8.30 am 9.30am 11.30 am 12.30 pm 3.00 pm 5.00 pm 8.30 pm	Waking Shower Breakfast Washing clothes Playing video games Lunch Reading Chemistry Watching movies Supper

Diaries for Recording the Daily Observation

MY DIARY

Calendar

April, 2016

Sun Mon Tue Wed Thur Frid Sat

1 2 3 4 5

6 7 8 9 10 11 12

13 14 15 16 17 18 19

20 21 22 23 24 25 26

27 28 29 30 31

ENTRY

Dear Diary,

Today, I started writing my first poem. I thought of what to write and by lunch time, an idea crossed my mind. I decided to write about corruption. I entitled it “Another Bond – Eurobond”. I had a lot to write about it. As I write now, my dear, I have completed writing it. Hopefully, I will write another one before the week ends. I will inform you about it once that is done. Bye

ADDRESSES
An address is a superscription of a letter directing who the letter is meant to reach.
The writer also writes their address in the letter to allow for the reply.
An address is written on an envelop, letter, or package.

Addresses in Letters

Address format vary according to the type of letter written.
Even though they are written differently, there are common features such as:
The post office box number
The postcode
The street, road, or building where the post office is located
The city or town
The country
There are two formats of writing addresses:
Block format; and
Indented format

Block Format

Address written in a block.
Paragraphs also blocked.
An example is

KILIMAMBOGO FOOD AND BEVERAGE,

P.O. BOX 555-35400,

KILIMAMBOGO – KENYA.

Indented Format

Written on a slant.
The paragraphs in the letter are also indented.
An example is:

KILIMAMBOGO FOOD AND BEVERAGES,

P.O. BOX 555-35400,

KILIMAMBOGO – KENYA.

Exercise

Write each of the addresses below as they would appear on your envelope:

Migori Polytechnic-40400- P.O. Box 654- The Principal-Kenya- Migori
Kenya Labour-The Director-30210- P.O. Box 90100- Kenya- Nairobi

PACKING LISTS
At times you find yourself forgetting something when packing for a trip.
It is important to get organized. Writing a packing list will be key in ensuring no item intended to be carried during a trip is forgotten.
A packing list is therefore a checklist for what to bring along with them.
To make the most out of your trip you have to pack the right items.
What you pack will highly depend on factors such as:
The place you are visiting. If for example, you are visiting a place where it is hot, there will be no need of carrying heavy clothes.
Means of transport. There is a limit to what one should carry depending on the weight.
Number of days.
The reason for visiting. For example if going on a camp, you need carry camping gear.

How to Start

Get a piece of paper and a pen and write “PACKING LIST”. This forms part of the title. The other part is the place to visit.
Write number of days. It is advisable to do this as it will help you tell how many clothes you will need. It might not sound good to carry only two underpants, for example, if the trip will last a week.
Draw a table with columns containing item category, item, quantity, and description. The various item categories are:
Entertainment list, for example, CDs, Radio, etc.
Clothing List, for example, underpants, skirts, etc.
Camping Gear, for example, sleeping bag,
Toiletries, for example, toothpaste, soap, etc.
In that table fill all the items and all its columns appropriately.

Sample Packing List

TRIP TO MACHAKOS PACKING LIST

DAYS: 3 Days

NO.	ITEM CATEGORY	ITEM	QUANTITY	DESCRIPTION
1.	CLOTHING LIST	Trousers Shirts Underpants	3 3 4	Purple one 2 white ones The pink one The one printed “Newyork”. The newly bought one. The black, yellow, red and indigo ones.
2.	ENTERTAINMENT LIST	CDs Laptop Earphone	3 1 1	Nigerian movies The one recently bought. Purple one.
3.	TOILETRIES	Bathing soap Washing soap Toothpaste	1-250gm ½ bar 50 gm	Fa Bathing soap. Jamaa Colgate
4.	DRINKS	Afya Soda	2-500 ml 2-500 ml	Guava flavored. Fanta

Exercise

You are Manchester City Football club Player. During one of the summer holidays, your club go for a 5 day camp to a very hot place in United Arab Emirates. Here, no beddings are provided. Write a packing list of all the items you would carry with you to this trip.

SOCIAL WRITING

Informal Letters

Usually written to people known to people you know fairly well. These can be friends and relatives.
Also referred to as friendly letters.
They are meant to:
Give news;
Request information;
Congratulate people;
Ask questions; or
Give advice.

How to Write Informal Letters

An informal letter has such elements as:
Sender’s address. Write your address here. Example,

MAALIK AHMED

P.O. BOX 6454-90800

KITALE

Date when the letter is written.
Example,

Dear Timothy,

Write the body of the text. Include greetings, news, other questions, etc.
Sign of with your name. example,

See you soon,

Denis

The table that follows is of a format of an informal letter blended with explanations:

The Format	Explanation
Address	At the top right hand corner, write your address. For example, Keicy Kimito P.O. Box 567 RONGO
Date	Below the writer’s address, is the date. For example, 13^th December, 2015
Salutation	Written on the left hand side of the letter. Start with: · Dear ………. , e.g. Dear Drinkwater, · Dearest………, or My Dear……., ( for close friends and relatives) Example, Dearest Drinkwater, Or My Dear Drinkwater,
Opening Paragraph	You may ask about the recipient’s health. For example, · How is your family? · How are you Njuguna? I hope that you and your family are in the pink. · I am fine and I hope you are as fit as a fiddle.
Content Paragraphs	This is where: · You mention your main reason for writing (paragraph 2) · Give the news · Ask questions You can start with: · I am writing this letter to…
Closing Paragraph	It is proper to inform your recipient that you are ending the letter. Some phrases you can use are: · Do write me soon. · Please convey my warm regards to… · Allow me to pen off here. · Hope to receive a reply from you. · Bye/ Goodbye
Closing	Sign off with your name. you can sign off using: · Your loving friend, · Yours lovingly, · Yours affectionately, · Your nephew, · Yours sincerely, · Keep in touch, Your name should follow. Your first name is preferred.

The Language of Informal Letters

The language used is simple as well as friendly.
You can use contractions such as I’m, won’t, you’re, etc.

Sample Friendly Letter

Brigit Annabel

P.O BOX 454—40400

SUNA- MIGORI

5^TH September, 2015

Dear James,

Hi James! Hope you are fine back there in Rongo. My sister and I are very much fine.

I’m just writing to let you know I quit my old job and found something new in Migori town.

I was really fed up with working at Banana Academy as there was little work enough to challenge me anymore. You know me; if there is no enough, I get bored too easily and have to find something new.

I’m now teaching at Sunsun in Migori and the kind of work I do suits me to the ground. I teach two candidate classes. The work here is not only challenging, but it is rewarding as well. I know you will find it hard to believe… but you just have to.

That is not all for now! I’m getting married in a couple of weeks. He is working in the neighbouring school. So many promises I hope he will fulfill he has not stopped to give. I also find him the best among the many. When the time comes I believe you will come and celebrate with us.

Keep in touch,

Brigit

Exercise

You have recently joined another school. Write a letter to your friend. In your letter

Explain why you changed school
Describe your new school
Tell him/her your other news

INSTITUTIONAL WRITING

PUBLIC NOTICES
A public notice is a notice given to provide information for the public that is widespread in a wide geographical area via media.
They are mostly placed in newspapers by businesses, county and national government, and individuals.
They include:
Unclaimed property
Wanted person
Dangerous person
Government contracts
Aunction
Foreclosures, etc.

Public Notice Format

The parts of a public notice include among others:

Name of the organization/institution. Letterhead is preferred.
Then write/type “PUBLIC NOTICE”.

The topic/theme/subject. Let the public know what you want to inform them about.

Date, time, and venue(if need be).
Picture to reinforce the message.
Name of the writer of the notice and the job position(and signature, for the more formal ones)

Sample Public Notice

MAJI MACHAFU LANDS DEALERS COMPANY

(P.O. Box 123-00200 Nanyuki, Email: majchaf@hotmail.com, Mobile: 0715234343)

PUBLIC NOTICE

Notice is hearby given that son of Amos Kinyanjui resident of Plot(5) located opposite Kadika Plaza, Kilgoris Estate has agreed to sell the plot mentioned in the schedule hereto dated 5^th June, 2015.

All persons claiming interest in the land or any part thereof by any way are hearby required to bring their complaints at our Mukomi office within 10 days from the date hearof, failing which the sale will be completed.

Yours Sincerely

[sign]

Fredrick Wainaina

SALES MANAGER

In the notice above, a picture of the plot can be included.

INVENTORIES
An inventory is a complete list of items such as equipment,property, goods in stock, or even the contents of a particular place.
A list of things possessed by a person or company.
It is a good idea to keep the records of items owned by a person or company.
An inventory will have the following basic elements:

Name of the institution. Name of the person, if individually possessed.
Date when the records are taken.
Item number
Item category
Item
Quantity of items
Description of the item
Approximate value of the item
The name and designation of the person keeping the records.

Here is a sample inventory.

KILIMANJARO MIXED DAY AND BOARDING HIGH SCHOOL

INVENTORY OF THE EQUIPMENT AS AT 24^TH MARCH, 2016

NO.

ITEM CATEGORY

LABORATORY EQUIPMENT

ELECTRONICS

FURNITURE

GAMES EQUIPMENT

ITEM

Test tubes

Microscopes

Computers

Radios

Printers

Teachers’ tables

Staffroom Chairs

Classroom chairs

Students’ Lockers

Office Cupboards

Beds

Balls

Volley ball nets

QUANTITY

400

500

300

DESCRIPTION

Good condition

Damaged

New ones

Damaged

Not working

New ones

Damaged

Good Condition

Newly Bought ones

Good Condition

Broken

Good condition

New Ones

Good Condition

Punctured

Good Condition

APPROXIMATE VALUE IN KSH.

1200

9800

72 000

12 000

6 800

68 700

14 600

48 000

110 000

200 000

44 500

250 000

60 000

12 000

600 000

3 000

6 000

RECORDS KEPT BY: Jeniffer Kwamboka

sign

School Store Keeper

Exercise

You are St. Monica’s Mission Hospital Resource Manager. At this hospital, records of items in it are kept at the end of every August. Write the inventory of all the items here.

Teachers' Resources

ENGLISH TEACHING NOTES FREE IN PDF

October 5, 2025 Maverick John Leave a comment

ENGLISH NOTES

NOUNS

These are words that name things ,people, ideas, qualities ,state and places.

Examples:

People-John, Jack
Ideas-stone, desk, laptop
Qualities-bravery, kindness, greed, diligence
State-sickness, laziness, poverty, wealth, love.
Places-Nairobi, Mombasa, Kisumu

Nouns can be divided into different categories.

Types of nouns

Proper nouns
Common nouns
Concrete nouns
Abstract nouns
Collective nouns
Countable nouns
Uncountable nouns

Common nouns

These are names of ordinary things. They include;

Boy
Girl
Locker
Desk
Water

Some common nouns have antonyms. They include:

shepherd-shepherdess buck-doe(goat,rabbit)
Bullock-heifer wizard-witch )
Drone-bee heir-heiress
Horse-mare manager-manageress
jack-jennet(donkey) tomcat-queen
Bachelor-spinster jew – jewess
monk-nun ram-ewe(sheep
cock-hen stallion-mare(horse)
Nephew-niece poet-poetess

Proper nouns

These are names given to specific people, places or things. They are always used with capital letters as follows;

Names of people ; Winston, Jacob, Melvin.
Months of the year; January, February, March.
Days of the week; Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday.
Seasons of the year; Winter, Spring, Autumn, Summer.
Names of countries and continents ; America, Kenya, Australia, Europe.
Names of regions, states and districts; Mombasa County, Nyanza , Califonia
Names of cities towns and villages; Naivasha, Nairobi, Kochia.
Geographical areas; The North, The North.

Concrete nouns

These are nouns naming things that can be seen and touched. The refer to:

People-boy, girl, teacher
Animals- cat, elephant, cow
Things-table, phone, cup
Geographical features-mountain, rivers, valleys

Abstract nouns

Abstract nouns are nouns naming things one cannot see or touch.

They refer to:

States; pain sickness, pity, poverty, wealth, success
Quality; honesty, greed, cruelty,
Ideas; education, corruption, love, hatred, justice

Count nouns/countable nouns

These are names of things which can be counted.

They have singular and plural forms.

They can be used with articles and numerals.

A Pen- pens
A Book-books
Paper-papers
Chair-chairs
Flower-flowers

f)Non-count /uncountable nouns

These are nouns of things that cannot be counted.

They cannot be used with articles such as a/an or the.

They can be used with expressions like some, a handful of, a bit of, a lot of, much .

Examples

Substances ;salt, food, dust
Liquids; milk, water, oil, juice
Ideas; music, knowledge, information, education, advice
Concrete objects; bedding, luggage, furniture, hair ,grass
Qualities; happiness, kindness, courage, obedience

Regular and Irregular nouns

Regular nouns

Regular nouns are nouns are nouns that form their plural by adding s or es to their singular forms.

Examples

Desk-desks

Pen pens

Box-boxes

Buffalo-buffaloes

Irregular noun

These are nouns that form their plural by changing their forms or certain letters.

Examples

Nouns that change oo to ee

Tooth-teeth
Goose-geese
Foot-feet

Nouns that omit us and add i

Radius-radii
Cactus-cacti
Stimulus-stimuli
Syllabus-syllabi/syllabuses
Alumnus-alumni

Nouns that omit um and replace it with a

Agendum-agenda
Addendum-addenda
Curriculum-curricula
Stratum-strata
Stimulus-stimuli

Nouns that change I to ee

Basis-bases
Oasis-oases
Thesis-theses
Crisis-crises

Nouns that change on/n to a

Criterion-criteria
Phenomenon-phenomena

Nouns that add ee

Larva-larvae
Formula-formulae

Nouns that change x to -ces

Matrix-matrices
Index-indices

Collective nouns

These are names of groups of people, animals or things.

They take a singular verb since each individual making up the group is seen as part of a single unit.

Examples

A brood of chickens a clan of hyenas
A dole of doves a cohort of zebras
A mews of hawks a bike of bees
A parliament of owls a flight of butterflies
A flight of pigeons a cloud of grasshoppers
A battery or journalists a colony of wasps
A run of poultry a clutter of spiders
A congress baboons a troupe of performers
A leap of leopards a house of senators
A pride of lions a panel of experts
A troop of monkeys a herd of harlots
A gang of buffaloes a gaggle of women
A coalition of cheetahs a clutch of eggs
A flink of cows a bed/bouquet of flowers
A pack of dogs a plague of locusts
A colony of rabbits a scourge of mosquitoes
A herd of donkeys a den of snakes
A herd of elephants an army of frogs
A stable of horses a nest of vipers
a school of whales a cast of actors
a bench of bishops an orchestra of musicians
a crowd of people a band of robbers
a crew of sailors a board of directors
a flock of tourists a fleet of cars
a galaxy of stars a cache of jewels

Compound nouns

These are nouns made up of more than one word.

They may be written as single words, two separate words, that have to be used together to give the right meaning and they may also be hyphenated.

Single words

Kickback Shopkeeper
Necklace Toothpaste
Sunshine Airport
Heartburn Nosebleed
Football Breakthrough
Classmate Takeaway
Workshop Teapot
Dressmaking Cupboard

Two/three separate words

Leather jacket dining hall
Tap water driving license
Bank account cow dung
Ice cream frying pan
Assistant minister ladies’ shoes
Deputy head children’s wear
Coat of arms

Hyphenated words

Mother-in-law
Commander-in-chief
Table-mat
Father-in- law
Sergeant-at-arm
Attorney-general
Passer-by
Door-bell

Plurals of Compound nouns

Plurals of compound nouns are formed in various ways:

Adding a plural marker to the last part of the compound noun

Shopkeepers
Necklaces
Workshops
Teapots
Bank accounts
Leather jackets
Deputy heads

Adding the plural ending after the first part of the compound noun

Coats of arms
Mothers-in-law
Commanders-in-law
Passers-by
Attorney-generals/attorneys-general
Sergeants-at-arm

NOUN PHRASES

A noun phrase is a group of words that functions as as a noun(unit)

It may comprise of a noun, a pronoun or a noun and other words modifying it.

These modifiers may include:

Article; a/an and the
Demonstratives; this, that, these, those
Possessive adjectives; my, his, their, our
Quantifiers; all, some, many, few, a lot, no
Numerals; two, three, four
Adjectives; good, handsome, beautiful

Examples of noun phrases

Noun

Corruption

Poverty

John

Nouns +articles

The cow

An umbrella

A dog

Noun + demonstrative

This cow

That jug

Noun + possessive adjective

My vehicle

His book

Noun +quantifiers

Some people

Many students

Noun + numerals

Two students

Three ladies

Noun + adjective

Handsome boys

Dirty pigs

Article + adjective + noun

The lonely pig

Article + numeral + adjective

The three dirty pigs

Functions of noun phrases

As a subject

A noun phrase is used as a subject if:

-it appears before the main verb

-it refers to the initiator of the action stated by the verb.

As complement

A subject complement is a word/phrase that describes/defines the subject of a sentence. They follow copular/ linking verbs. These verbs include ;am, was, are, were, been, become, appear, seen, sound and feel.

As an object

a)Direct object

A direct object is a word, phrase or clause that follows a transitive verb and answers the question ”who” or “what?”

A direct object receives the action of the of the verb.

b)Indirect object

An indirect object is a word/phrase that answers the question “to whom?” or “for whom” or for what is the action of the verb performed. Indirect object is the beneficiary/receives something or benefits from something.

CLAUSES

A clause is a group of words contain a subject and a verb(predicate)

It can form either a sentence on its own, or be part of a longer sentence.

Types of clauses

i) Independent clause

These are also called main clauses, they are clauses that can stand on their as sentences.

Examples

Susan likes reading.
The guest speaker spoke for only 20 minutes.
We saw our local M.P at baraza.
Literature courses are offered at the university.

ii) Coordinating clause

If two or more independent clauses are joined to make a sentence , each sentence is called a coordinating clause. This clause comprises sentences of equal importance but they work together.

Each coordinating clause is connected to the other using a coordinating conjunction(fanboys)

Examples

John likes to play football but Joseph plays volleyball.

iii) Dependent/subordinate clause

These are clauses that depend on independent clauses to be meaningful.

They do not express a complete thought and cannot stand on their own.

These clauses are used with subordinate conjunctions such as : if, although, before, while, as, until unless, despite ,since etc

Examples

Unless you read newspapers, you cannot be informed.

Although I revised well, I failed terribly.

NOUN CLAUSES

A noun clause is a subordinate clause that does the same work as that of a noun phrase.

It has a subject and a verb and may be used as a subject or an object of a sentence.

Noun clause are introduced by words such as when, that, whoever, how, where, whoever, which, who, how, why and whatever.

Examples

Whoever finishes the race will get the reward.
Whoever ordered the books is not in today.
She told me to give the guests whatever they needed.
He understood what we discussed.
When to vote will be decided on by the commission.
That they failed irritates them.
How you spend the money is up to you.
He said that the teacher had arrived.

Types of noun clauses

That noun clause

That the world is round is known.
I know that you can pass.
That I love football is known.
That we shall die is known.

Wh-noun clauses

What she did was seen.

Functions of noun clauses

Subject of a sentence

Object of a sentence

Complement

NOUN DERIVATIONS

Noun derivation is the process of forming nouns from other lexical categories(words) by adding affixes(prefixes, suffixes, infixes)

Nouns are formed by adding prefixes to verbs ,adjectives or nouns

Prefixes are elements added at the end of words

Examples

-er -ment -less
-ee -ion -ive
-ness -tion -able
-ship -ence -ation
-ism -dom
-ity -ize/ise -or

Nouns derived from verbs

By adding –er

Dance-dancer
Write-writer
Drive-driver
Winner-winner

By adding –ee

Retire-retiree
Escape-escapee
Train-trainee
Pay-payee
Refer-referee
Absent-absentee

Divorce-divorcee

By adding –or

Guarant-guarantor
Act-actor
Stress-stressor
Donate-donator
Educate-educator
instruct-instructor

By adding –ation/-ition

Educate-education
Attend-attention
Repeat-repetition
Admit-admission
Discuss-discussion
Receive-reception

By adding –ment/ent

Require-requirement
Involve-involvement
Acknowledge-acknowledgement
Employ-employment

By adding –ance/ence

Accept-acceptance
Admit-admittance
Allow-allowance
Assure-assurance
Comply-compliance
Defy-defiance
Guide-guidance
Maintain-maintenance
Clear-clearance
Adhere-adherence
Patient-patience
Exist-existence

By adding –al

Survive-survival
Deny-denial
Bury-burial
Dismiss-dismissal
Rehearse-rehearsal

By adding –age

Marry-marriage
Waste-wastage
Break-breakage
Use-usage

By adding –ery

Deliver-delivery
Bribe- bribery

Nouns derived from adjectives

By adding –ness

Kind-kindness
Stubborn-stubbornness
Shy-shyness
Happy-happiness
Keen-keenness
Open-openness

By adding –ism

Tribe-tribalism
Material-materialism
Critic-criticism
Race-racism
Skeptic- skepticism

By adding –ery

Brave-bravery

By adding –ity

Equal-equality
Similar-similarity
Sane-sanity
Curious-curiosity
Brief-brevity

By adding

Nouns derived from nouns

By adding-ship

Friend-friendship

King-kingship
Relation-relationship
Leader-leadership
Friend-friendship
Author-authorship
Owner-ownership

Censor-censorship

By adding –dom

King-kingdom
Martyr-martyrdom
Chief-chiefdom

By adding –ery

Slave-slavery

PRONOUNS

Pronouns are words used in place of pronouns.

Person and number

Personal pronouns are divided into three classes:

First person pronouns

These are pronouns that refer to the person who is speaking/writing

They include:

singular	plural
I	we
me	us

Second person pronouns

These are pronouns that refer to person who is listening or reading.

They include:

singular	plural
you	you

Third person pronouns

These pronouns that refer to the person being spoken about.

They include:

singular	plural
He/him	They/them
She/her	They/them
it	They/them

Pronouns that refer to the doer of the action are called subject pronouns. They include:

I, we, you, he, she, it and they.

Pronouns that refer to the recipient/receiver of the action are called object pronouns. They include:

Me, us, you, him, her, it and them.

Indefinite Pronouns

Indefinite pronouns are pronouns which do not refer to definite number of things or people. They refer to things in general without identifying them.

Examples

everybody several
Everyone one
Nobody either
Anyone all
Nobody many
Somebody few
None both
Someone some

Indefinite pronouns can be categorized into:

Singular indefinite pronouns

Plural indefinite pronouns

i)singular indefinite pronouns

These are indefinite pronouns that refer to one person/thing.

Examples

Nobody everybody
Someone none
Anyone someone
Somebody another
Another each
Everybody neither

Singular indefinite pronouns take singular verbs such as has, is, and says.

ii) Plural indefinite pronouns

These are indefinite pronouns that refer to more than one person or thing.

Examples

All
Many
Few
Both
Several

These take plural verbs such as are, were, have

Indefinite pronouns can be made to be gender sensitive by using his/her.

Pronouns and Case

A case is different positions that pronouns take in a sentence. They can take the subject or the object position.

i) Subjective Case

A pronoun is said to be in subjective case when it appears before/precedes a verb.

Examples

He will always remember this.
She teaches Geography.
They are in college.

Pronouns used in subjective case include: I, we, you, he, she, it and they.

Person	singular	plural
1^st	I	we
2^nd	you	you
3rd	He/she
	it

NB: Pronouns in subjective case are also used in comparison after than.

She is taller than he.

ii)objective case

A pronoun is said to be in the objective case when it appears/comes after the verb or preposition.

Examples

John loves her
I am waiting for him.

Pronouns used in objective case are:

Person	singular	plural
1^st person	me	Us
2^nd person	You	you
3^rd person	Him
	Her	They
	it

NB: Relative pronouns also take either subjective case.

Who is used in the subjective case; it refers to the doer of the action.

Example

This man who gave me a gift.

Whom is used as an object; it refers to the recipient of the action.

It can also be used with prepositions.

Example

The man whom I wanted to see is in Narok.
The woman to whom I wished to speak was away.
I saw the people for whom you work.

The student whom you sent home has returned.

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ENGLISH NOTES FOR HIGH SCHOOLS

October 5, 2025 Maverick John Leave a comment

ENGLISH NOTES

NOUNS

These are words that name things ,people, ideas, qualities ,state and places.

Examples:

People-John, Jack
Ideas-stone, desk, laptop
Qualities-bravery, kindness, greed, diligence
State-sickness, laziness, poverty, wealth, love.
Places-Nairobi, Mombasa, Kisumu

Nouns can be divided into different categories.

Types of nouns

Proper nouns
Common nouns
Concrete nouns
Abstract nouns
Collective nouns
Countable nouns
Uncountable nouns

Common nouns

These are names of ordinary things. They include;

Boy
Girl
Locker
Desk
Water

Some common nouns have antonyms. They include:

shepherd-shepherdess buck-doe(goat,rabbit)
Bullock-heifer wizard-witch )
Drone-bee heir-heiress
Horse-mare manager-manageress
jack-jennet(donkey) tomcat-queen
Bachelor-spinster jew – jewess
monk-nun ram-ewe(sheep
cock-hen stallion-mare(horse)
Nephew-niece poet-poetess

Proper nouns

These are names given to specific people, places or things. They are always used with capital letters as follows;

Names of people ; Winston, Jacob, Melvin.
Months of the year; January, February, March.
Days of the week; Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday.
Seasons of the year; Winter, Spring, Autumn, Summer.
Names of countries and continents ; America, Kenya, Australia, Europe.
Names of regions, states and districts; Mombasa County, Nyanza , Califonia
Names of cities towns and villages; Naivasha, Nairobi, Kochia.
Geographical areas; The North, The North.

Concrete nouns

These are nouns naming things that can be seen and touched. The refer to:

People-boy, girl, teacher
Animals- cat, elephant, cow
Things-table, phone, cup
Geographical features-mountain, rivers, valleys

Abstract nouns

Abstract nouns are nouns naming things one cannot see or touch.

They refer to:

States; pain sickness, pity, poverty, wealth, success
Quality; honesty, greed, cruelty,
Ideas; education, corruption, love, hatred, justice

Count nouns/countable nouns

These are names of things which can be counted.

They have singular and plural forms.

They can be used with articles and numerals.

A Pen- pens
A Book-books
Paper-papers
Chair-chairs
Flower-flowers

f)Non-count /uncountable nouns

These are nouns of things that cannot be counted.

They cannot be used with articles such as a/an or the.

They can be used with expressions like some, a handful of, a bit of, a lot of, much .

Examples

Substances ;salt, food, dust
Liquids; milk, water, oil, juice
Ideas; music, knowledge, information, education, advice
Concrete objects; bedding, luggage, furniture, hair ,grass
Qualities; happiness, kindness, courage, obedience

Regular and Irregular nouns

Regular nouns

Regular nouns are nouns are nouns that form their plural by adding s or es to their singular forms.

Examples

Desk-desks

Pen pens

Box-boxes

Buffalo-buffaloes

Irregular noun

These are nouns that form their plural by changing their forms or certain letters.

Examples

Nouns that change oo to ee

Tooth-teeth
Goose-geese
Foot-feet

Nouns that omit us and add i

Radius-radii
Cactus-cacti
Stimulus-stimuli
Syllabus-syllabi/syllabuses
Alumnus-alumni

Nouns that omit um and replace it with a

Agendum-agenda
Addendum-addenda
Curriculum-curricula
Stratum-strata
Stimulus-stimuli

Nouns that change I to ee

Basis-bases
Oasis-oases
Thesis-theses
Crisis-crises

Nouns that change on/n to a

Criterion-criteria
Phenomenon-phenomena

Nouns that add ee

Larva-larvae
Formula-formulae

Nouns that change x to -ces

Matrix-matrices
Index-indices

Collective nouns

These are names of groups of people, animals or things.

They take a singular verb since each individual making up the group is seen as part of a single unit.

Examples

A brood of chickens a clan of hyenas
A dole of doves a cohort of zebras
A mews of hawks a bike of bees
A parliament of owls a flight of butterflies
A flight of pigeons a cloud of grasshoppers
A battery or journalists a colony of wasps
A run of poultry a clutter of spiders
A congress baboons a troupe of performers
A leap of leopards a house of senators
A pride of lions a panel of experts
A troop of monkeys a herd of harlots
A gang of buffaloes a gaggle of women
A coalition of cheetahs a clutch of eggs
A flink of cows a bed/bouquet of flowers
A pack of dogs a plague of locusts
A colony of rabbits a scourge of mosquitoes
A herd of donkeys a den of snakes
A herd of elephants an army of frogs
A stable of horses a nest of vipers
a school of whales a cast of actors
a bench of bishops an orchestra of musicians
a crowd of people a band of robbers
a crew of sailors a board of directors
a flock of tourists a fleet of cars
a galaxy of stars a cache of jewels

Compound nouns

These are nouns made up of more than one word.

They may be written as single words, two separate words, that have to be used together to give the right meaning and they may also be hyphenated.

Single words

Kickback Shopkeeper
Necklace Toothpaste
Sunshine Airport
Heartburn Nosebleed
Football Breakthrough
Classmate Takeaway
Workshop Teapot
Dressmaking Cupboard

Two/three separate words

Leather jacket dining hall
Tap water driving license
Bank account cow dung
Ice cream frying pan
Assistant minister ladies’ shoes
Deputy head children’s wear
Coat of arms

Hyphenated words

Mother-in-law
Commander-in-chief
Table-mat
Father-in- law
Sergeant-at-arm
Attorney-general
Passer-by
Door-bell

Plurals of Compound nouns

Plurals of compound nouns are formed in various ways:

Adding a plural marker to the last part of the compound noun

Shopkeepers
Necklaces
Workshops
Teapots
Bank accounts
Leather jackets
Deputy heads

Adding the plural ending after the first part of the compound noun

Coats of arms
Mothers-in-law
Commanders-in-law
Passers-by
Attorney-generals/attorneys-general
Sergeants-at-arm

NOUN PHRASES

A noun phrase is a group of words that functions as as a noun(unit)

It may comprise of a noun, a pronoun or a noun and other words modifying it.

These modifiers may include:

Article; a/an and the
Demonstratives; this, that, these, those
Possessive adjectives; my, his, their, our
Quantifiers; all, some, many, few, a lot, no
Numerals; two, three, four
Adjectives; good, handsome, beautiful

Examples of noun phrases

Noun

Corruption

Poverty

John

Nouns +articles

The cow

An umbrella

A dog

Noun + demonstrative

This cow

That jug

Noun + possessive adjective

My vehicle

His book

Noun +quantifiers

Some people

Many students

Noun + numerals

Two students

Three ladies

Noun + adjective

Handsome boys

Dirty pigs

Article + adjective + noun

The lonely pig

Article + numeral + adjective

The three dirty pigs

Functions of noun phrases

As a subject

A noun phrase is used as a subject if:

-it appears before the main verb

-it refers to the initiator of the action stated by the verb.

As complement

As an object

a)Direct object

A direct object is a word, phrase or clause that follows a transitive verb and answers the question ”who” or “what?”

A direct object receives the action of the of the verb.

b)Indirect object

CLAUSES

A clause is a group of words contain a subject and a verb(predicate)

It can form either a sentence on its own, or be part of a longer sentence.

Types of clauses

i) Independent clause

These are also called main clauses, they are clauses that can stand on their as sentences.

Examples

Susan likes reading.
The guest speaker spoke for only 20 minutes.
We saw our local M.P at baraza.
Literature courses are offered at the university.

ii) Coordinating clause

If two or more independent clauses are joined to make a sentence , each sentence is called a coordinating clause. This clause comprises sentences of equal importance but they work together.

Each coordinating clause is connected to the other using a coordinating conjunction(fanboys)

Examples

John likes to play football but Joseph plays volleyball.

iii) Dependent/subordinate clause

These are clauses that depend on independent clauses to be meaningful.

They do not express a complete thought and cannot stand on their own.

These clauses are used with subordinate conjunctions such as : if, although, before, while, as, until unless, despite ,since etc

Examples

Unless you read newspapers, you cannot be informed.

Although I revised well, I failed terribly.

NOUN CLAUSES

A noun clause is a subordinate clause that does the same work as that of a noun phrase.

It has a subject and a verb and may be used as a subject or an object of a sentence.

Noun clause are introduced by words such as when, that, whoever, how, where, whoever, which, who, how, why and whatever.

Examples

Whoever finishes the race will get the reward.
Whoever ordered the books is not in today.
She told me to give the guests whatever they needed.
He understood what we discussed.
When to vote will be decided on by the commission.
That they failed irritates them.
How you spend the money is up to you.
He said that the teacher had arrived.

Types of noun clauses

That noun clause

That the world is round is known.
I know that you can pass.
That I love football is known.
That we shall die is known.

Wh-noun clauses

What she did was seen.

Functions of noun clauses

Subject of a sentence

Object of a sentence

Complement

NOUN DERIVATIONS

Noun derivation is the process of forming nouns from other lexical categories(words) by adding affixes(prefixes, suffixes, infixes)

Nouns are formed by adding prefixes to verbs ,adjectives or nouns

Prefixes are elements added at the end of words

Examples

-er -ment -less
-ee -ion -ive
-ness -tion -able
-ship -ence -ation
-ism -dom
-ity -ize/ise -or

Nouns derived from verbs

By adding –er

Dance-dancer
Write-writer
Drive-driver
Winner-winner

By adding –ee

Retire-retiree
Escape-escapee
Train-trainee
Pay-payee
Refer-referee
Absent-absentee

Divorce-divorcee

By adding –or

Guarant-guarantor
Act-actor
Stress-stressor
Donate-donator
Educate-educator
instruct-instructor

By adding –ation/-ition

Educate-education
Attend-attention
Repeat-repetition
Admit-admission
Discuss-discussion
Receive-reception

By adding –ment/ent

Require-requirement
Involve-involvement
Acknowledge-acknowledgement
Employ-employment

By adding –ance/ence

Accept-acceptance
Admit-admittance
Allow-allowance
Assure-assurance
Comply-compliance
Defy-defiance
Guide-guidance
Maintain-maintenance
Clear-clearance
Adhere-adherence
Patient-patience
Exist-existence

By adding –al

Survive-survival
Deny-denial
Bury-burial
Dismiss-dismissal
Rehearse-rehearsal

By adding –age

Marry-marriage
Waste-wastage
Break-breakage
Use-usage

By adding –ery

Deliver-delivery
Bribe- bribery

Nouns derived from adjectives

By adding –ness

Kind-kindness
Stubborn-stubbornness
Shy-shyness
Happy-happiness
Keen-keenness
Open-openness

By adding –ism

Tribe-tribalism
Material-materialism
Critic-criticism
Race-racism
Skeptic- skepticism

By adding –ery

Brave-bravery

By adding –ity

Equal-equality
Similar-similarity
Sane-sanity
Curious-curiosity
Brief-brevity

By adding

Nouns derived from nouns

By adding-ship

Friend-friendship

King-kingship
Relation-relationship
Leader-leadership
Friend-friendship
Author-authorship
Owner-ownership

Censor-censorship

By adding –dom

King-kingdom
Martyr-martyrdom
Chief-chiefdom

By adding –ery

Slave-slavery

PRONOUNS

Pronouns are words used in place of pronouns.

Person and number

Personal pronouns are divided into three classes:

First person pronouns

These are pronouns that refer to the person who is speaking/writing

They include:

singular	plural
I	we
me	us

Second person pronouns

These are pronouns that refer to person who is listening or reading.

They include:

singular	plural
you	you

Third person pronouns

These pronouns that refer to the person being spoken about.

They include:

singular	plural
He/him	They/them
She/her	They/them
it	They/them

Pronouns that refer to the doer of the action are called subject pronouns. They include:

I, we, you, he, she, it and they.

Pronouns that refer to the recipient/receiver of the action are called object pronouns. They include:

Me, us, you, him, her, it and them.

Indefinite Pronouns

Indefinite pronouns are pronouns which do not refer to definite number of things or people. They refer to things in general without identifying them.

Examples

everybody several
Everyone one
Nobody either
Anyone all
Nobody many
Somebody few
None both
Someone some

Indefinite pronouns can be categorized into:

Singular indefinite pronouns

Plural indefinite pronouns

i)singular indefinite pronouns

These are indefinite pronouns that refer to one person/thing.

Examples

Nobody everybody
Someone none
Anyone someone
Somebody another
Another each
Everybody neither

Singular indefinite pronouns take singular verbs such as has, is, and says.

ii) Plural indefinite pronouns

These are indefinite pronouns that refer to more than one person or thing.

Examples

All
Many
Few
Both
Several

These take plural verbs such as are, were, have

Indefinite pronouns can be made to be gender sensitive by using his/her.

Pronouns and Case

A case is different positions that pronouns take in a sentence. They can take the subject or the object position.

i) Subjective Case

A pronoun is said to be in subjective case when it appears before/precedes a verb.

Examples

He will always remember this.
She teaches Geography.
They are in college.

Pronouns used in subjective case include: I, we, you, he, she, it and they.

Person	singular	plural
1^st	I	we
2^nd	you	you
3rd	He/she
	it

NB: Pronouns in subjective case are also used in comparison after than.

She is taller than he.

ii) Objective case

A pronoun is said to be in the objective case when it appears/comes after the verb or preposition.

Examples

John loves her
I am waiting for him.

Pronouns used in objective case are:

Person	singular	plural
1^st person	me	Us
2^nd person	You	you
3^rd person	Him
	Her	They
	it

NB: Relative pronouns also take either subjective case.

Who is used in the subjective case; it refers to the doer of the action.

Example

This man who gave me a gift.

Whom is used as an object; it refers to the recipient of the action.

It can also be used with prepositions.

Example

The man whom I wanted to see is in Narok.
The woman to whom I wished to speak was away.
I saw the people for whom you work.

The student whom you sent home has returned.

ADJECTIVES

Adjectives are words that give more information about nouns. When two or more adjectives are used in a sentence, there is an order in which they should appear.

Order of Adjectives

Opinion adjectives

These are adjectives that express the speaker’s opinion on something or somebody.

Examples

Beautiful
Handsome
Useful
Ugly
Exciting
boring

Fact /descriptive adjectives

These are adjectives that give us factual information about a thing. They give us more information about:

Size-large
Shape-round, oval, rectangular
Age-young, old
Colour-red, black
Nationality-Kenyan, Chinese
Material-plastic, metallic, woolen
Use-coffee

When opinion and descriptive adjectives are used together in a sentence, the opinion adjectives come first. The rest then follow the order below.

Opinion-impressive, beautiful, wonderful
Size-large, small,
Shape- circular, rectangular, oval
Age- young, new, old
Colour-black, green
Origin- Kenyan, Chinese, Uganda
Material/make-wooden, fibre
Use-dining, shopping, coffee

Adjectival Phrases

An adjectival phrase is a group of words that does the work of an adjective/modifier/modifies/describes a noun or a pronoun.

They are of two types:

Made up of an adjective and an intensifier

Intensifiers are words that show degree(adverbs of degree) eg very, too, so, enough, completely, entirely, really.

Examples

His story was quite interesting.
The porridge is very hot.
Thank you for being so kind.
Our classroom floor is very clean.
The students are really happy.

Made up of a preposition and a noun phrase or pronoun

When a prepositional phrase is used as a modifier of a noun/pronoun, it is also called adjectival phrase.

Examples

The girl in red shirt is my sister.
The picture at the beginning of the book is very appropriate.
The loud music from that house must stop.
The applicant with the least chance of success complained the most.

Adjectival Clause

These are clauses that give more information about nouns or pronouns.

They are introduced by relative pronouns- who, which, that, whom, whose, whichever, whatever.

Who, whom- people

That- ————-things

That, which—–things and animals

Whose————possessives

Types of adjectival clauses

Defining adjectival clauses

These clauses tell us exactly which person or thing the speaker is referring to;

The person who built that church has died.

Rukia works for a firm that repairs mobile phones.

The man whom I was speaking to is my neighbour.

NB: That can be used instead of whom/which.
Who, that and which can be left out when the relative pronoun stands for an object in the adjectival clause.

No-defining adjectival clauses

Are adjectival clauses that give additional information about the subject.

They are separated from the main clause by commas.

Only who and which are used and cannot be omitted.

Examples

Mandela, who is the first black president of South Africa, won the Nobel Peace prize.

NB; A non- defining adjectival clause is only used to give additional information and can be left out without affecting the meaning of the main sentence.

Adjectival clauses reduced to phrases

The sheep which had black spots were mine.
The sheep with black spots were mine.
The voters who had no I.Ds were turned away.
The voters with no I.Ds were turned away.

Participles as adjectival clauses

The verb in the relative clause can be replaced

Formation of adjectives

i) From nouns

Adjectives are formed by adding suffixes to nouns.

Some of these include:

-al; environmental, societal, seasonal, brutal
-ial; influential, partial, facial
-ual; factual, actual; conceptual
-less; hopeful, jobless, dustless
-en; woolen
-ese; Chinese, Japanese, Portuguese, Beninese, Nepalese
-ful; faithful, dutiful, eventful
-ly; friendly, cowardly, deadly
-some; troublesome
-ish; foolish, feverish
-ry; hairy
-ous; glorious, joyous
-ic; historic

ii) From verbs

-able; manageable, desirable,

-less; relentless,

-ful; relentful

-ive; active, preventive

-ious; rebellious, envious, marvelous

VERBS

Primary Auxiliary Verbs

Auxiliary verbs are verbs that can be used as main verbs and helping verbs in sentences.

Forms of primary auxiliary verbs

VERBS

HAVE

Has

Have

Having

had

are

was

were

being

been

does

doing

did

done

Functions of primary auxiliary verbs

Express tense

Simple present tense

He is intelligent
He does homework.

Past tense

He was intelligent
He had money.

Express aspect

Perfective aspect

She had talked.
He has danced.

Progressive aspect

She is talking.
He is dancing

To show emphasis

The girls’ netball team did win all the matches.
I do care for you.

Formation of questions

Did the girls’ netball team win all the matches?
Do I trust her?

Show subject-verb agreement

Primary auxiliary verbs change their forms depending on whether the subject is singular or plural. When the subject is singular, the auxiliary verb used is singular.

My sister does her work daily.
Our sisters do their work daily.

VERB PHRASES

This is part of a sentence that indicates the action or state.

It may comprise of a verb, two or more helping verbs and one main verb or a helping verb an adverb and the main verb.

A single verb

She sang beautifully.

A helping verb and a main verb.

He had killed a rat.
He was killing a rat.
A rat is killed.
He has killed a rat.
He will kill a rat.
Two main verbs
He likes killing a rat.
He prefers taking tea.
He enjoyed reading a novel.
He wanted to go home.

Two or more helping verbs and a main verb

He will have killed a rat.
He will be killing a rat.
A rat had been killed.
A rat is being killed.
A rat will be killed.
A rat will be being killed.
A rat will have been killed.

A helping verb, an adverb and a main verb

He will hardly kill a rat.

ASPECT

The continuous aspect/progressive aspect

The progressive aspect is used to show that an action is continuing or is in progress.

It can be used with past tense, present tense and future tense.

Present continuous aspect

The present continuous aspect is used when talking about an action or a feeling which is still going on.

The aspect is formed by using the present tense of the verb ‘be’- am, are, is and adding -ing to the main verb

Examples

a) Majority of verbs that and in ‘e’ drop the final e before adding -ing.

Write-writing
Smoke-smoking
Drive-driving

b) Some retain e and add –ing

dye-dyeing
eye-eyeing
see-seeing
agree-agreeing

Agree-agreeing

c) Some verbs that end in ‘ie’, replace the ‘ie’ with y before adding -ing

tie-tying
lie-lying
die-dying

d) If the verb ends in a consonant preceded by a single vowel, double the final consonant and add –ing.

Stop-stopping.
Plan-planning
Begin-beginning
Clap-clapping
Nod-nodding

NB: The present continuous aspect is also used to explain the future arrangement that have already been made

My mother is flying to Garisa next month.

Robert is completing his studies in November.

Future Time

Future time refers to the time that will come after the moment of speech. It can be expressed in various ways.

Using the present simple tense

Simple present tense is used to express future when talking about timetables or programmes.

Examples

Schools close for holidays every three months.

The bus leaves the police station at 9.00 a.m.

The BOG meeting starts at 8.00 am tomorrow.

Using shall/will

Shall is used with the first person pronouns only (I, We)

Will is used with all classes of pronouns.

Using the present continuous tense

This takes the auxiliary verbs am/is/are and –ing verbs. This aspect is used to talk about future arrangement or plan.

Examples

Jane is visiting her grandmother tomorrow.

I am having a wedding next Saturday.

They are joining campus in August.

Going to is used with a verb in the infinitive to express the future.

The participle

A participle is a form of verb that is used in a sentence to play the role of other words such as nouns, adjectives other than the verb alone.

Active and Passive voice

Active voice

An active sentence is used to tell what the subject does; a sentence in which the subject is the performer of the action stated by the verb.

A n active voice has an active verb; a verb that is used with a subject and an object.

Examples

Admire write
Discuss lend
Many buy
Kill tell
Like want
Give value
Buy take

Passive voice

A passive sentence/voice is used to tell what happens to the subject. Passive verb is used to indicate the passive voice.

To change an active verb into a passive one;

The object of the active sentence takes the position of the subject.

The verb changes into the past participle and is used with auxiliary verbs(am, are, was, were, is)

ASPECT	ACTIVE VOICE	PASSIVE VOICE
Simple present	He kills a rat.	A rat was killed
Present perfect	He has killed a rat.	A rat has been killed.
Present contin.	He is killing a rat	A rat is being killed.
Simple past	He killed a rat.	A rat was killed.
Past perfect	He had killed a rat	A rat had been killed.
Past continuous	He was killing a rat.	A rat was being killed.
Simple future	He will kill a rat.	A rat will be killed.
Future perfect	He will have killed a rat	A rat will have been killed.
Future continuous	He will be killing a rat.	A rat will be being killed.

The original subject (doer) is sometimes omitted when the sentence is changed into passive voice.

Active and passive voice can be used with modal auxiliary verbs; can, may, should, ought.

A cat kills a rat.

Passive voice used with ditransitive verbs

A ditransitive verb is one used with two objects;

Give
buy
Write

When an active sentence has two objects, two passive sentences can be derived.

John bought Khadija a dress.
A dress was bought for Khadija.
Khadija was bought a dress.

Transitive and Intransitive Verbs

Transitive verbs

These are verbs that are followed direct objects. The object follows the verb immediately; there is no preposition between them.

Examples

Used kill
Keep marry
Close love
Admire

Some transitive verbs take more than one object; a direct object and indirect object. They are called ditransitive verbs.

Examples

Buy make
Tell lend
Sell bake

The object that follows the verb immediately is called indirect object and it answers the question ‘for whom’ or ‘to whom’ while the last object is called direct object. The direct object may follow the verb immediately if the indirect object is used with a preposition e.g.

Kalulu bought a guitar for Kagame.

Transitive verbs take both passive and active voice.

The county education officer gave the students an inspiring speech.(active)
The students were given an inspiring speech..(passive)
An inspiring speech was given to the students…(passive)

Intransitive verbs

These are verbs that do not require direct objects. They may be followed by adverbs or prepositional phrases.

Examples

Die weep
Sleep yawned
Run arrive
Bark sit
Stay

NB: Some verbs can be used both transitively and intransitively based on how they have been used.

Examples

Eat taste
Drive cook
Leave drink
Grow

The Infinitives

The infinitive is formed by use of ‘to’ followed by the root or bare form of a verb.

Examples

To learn
To go
To give
To sell
To have
To teach
To protect
To sing
To plan
To forget

The infinitive can be used as a verb, a noun, an adjective or an adverb.

As a noun

The to infinitive ca act as a subject, a direct object or a subject complement.

Examples

T o exercise is healthy.(subject)
To err is human.(subject)
I want to go now(object)
She likes to read.(object)

As an adjective

The infinitive functions as an adjective if it modifies a noun.

I bought a book to read.
They have got eggs to sell.
Students have a right to read in the school library.
Ronaldo is the player to watch.

As an adverb

The infinitive functions as an adverb if it modifies a verb, an adjective or another adverb.

We must sow to reap.
The bird arrived to grab the leftovers.
He bought enough food to feed a battalion.

Types of participle

The present participle (-ing participle)

This is formed by adding –ing suffix to the infinitive/base form of a word

Examples

Cooking
Boring
Eating
Knitting

Functions of the present participle

As a verb

The –ing participle is used with the past, present and future tense to show a progressive aspect. It is used with auxiliary verbs like is, was, are, were, am, be

Examples

He is cooking
He was cooking.
He will be cooking.

As an adjective

The –ing participle can be used to give more information about a noun or pronoun. Used as an adjective, the participle can be placed in front of the noun it modifies or after a linking/copular verb like is, was are, were.

Examples

I read an amazing book.
I read a book which was boring.

As a noun

The –ing participle can function as a noun, a subject, indirect object. When used as a noun, it is called a gerund.

Examples

Cooking excites me.
She likes cooking.

The past participle.

This is formed by adding -ed/d/en/t to the infinitives

Example

Written
Taken
Walked
Knocked
Spent
Learnt

Function of the past participle

As a verb

The past participle is used with auxiliary verbs such as has, have or had to indicate the perfect aspect.

Phrasal verb

A phrasal verb is a multi-word verb that consists of a verb with a preposition or an adverb or both. The meaning of the phrasal verb is different from the meaning of its separate parts.

Phrasal verbs may consist of two or three words.

Examples

Look up-check
Put off-postpone
Show off-boast
Take after-resemble
Eat into-erode/deplete
Grow up-mature
Make for-try to reach
Give in-yield/surrender
Make of-understand
Pass out-faint
Call at-visit
Take after-resemble

Phrasal verbs may consist of two or three words.

Examples

Two words

Make up-prepare, compensate for something, create a story
Bring up-raise a child, introduce an idea
Take off-remove something, run away, fly, succeed
Put on-wear clothes, switch, organize an event.
Bump into-meet
Drop by-visit

Three words

Catch up with-keep abreast
Check up on-examine, investigate
Come up with-contribute
Get along with- have a good relationship
Get away with-escape, blame
Get rid of-eliminate
Look down on-despise
Look up to-respect
Put up with-tolerate
Run out of-exhaust
Get through with-finish
Walk out on-leave somebody

In some phrasal verbs, the object may come after or may separate the two parts. These include

Call off-cancel
Do away-repeat a job
Find out-discover
Hold up-delay
Make up
Look up
Put off-postpone
Put out-extinguish
Turn down-reject
Turn up-raise the volume
Turn up
Lay off-sack
Pull down –demolish

NB: When the object of the following phrasal verb is a person, the two parts of the phrasal verb must be separated.

They called off this afternoons meeting.

They called this afternoons meeting off.

Some phrasal verbs cannot be separated.

Call on-visit
Get over-recover from sickness/disappointment
Look after
Look into
Take after
Bump into-meet accidentally

Phrasal verbs can be used transitively or intransitively.

Break down-stop functioning
Drop by-visit without appointment
Get by-survive
Grow up-get older.

Idiomatic expression

Idioms are expressions whose meaning is difficult or sometimes impossible to guess by looking at the meaning of the individual word it contains.

Have butterflies in your stomach-feel nervous
An icing on the cake-
Bitter pill to swallow-
waste not want not-warning against wastage
a rocket science-not difficult
keep one’s head above water-manage
give somebody a run for his money-not allow somebody easily
Throw the spanner in the works-prevent something from happening
Throw a tantrum-get angry
Take a French leave
Extend an olive branch
Fish in troubled water
Water under the bridge
Tip of the iceberg- small part of something
A storm in a cup of tea-
Hit below the belt
Bring to book-punish for wrong doing
Lend a hand-help
Throw in a white towel-surrender
Bite more than you can chew-do more than ability
Borrow a leaf-copy
Steal the show-attract attention
Bury the hatchet-stop being unfriendly and become friends
Bite the bullet-deal with a difficult situation

Phrasal verb

A phrasal verb is a multi-word verb that consists of a verb with a preposition or an adverb or both. The meaning of the phrasal verb is different from the meaning of its separate parts.

Phrasal verbs may consist of two or three words.

Examples

Look up-check
Put off-postpone
Show off-boast
Take after-resemble
Eat into-erode/deplete
Grow up-mature
Make for-try to reach
Give in-yield/surrender
Make of-understand
Pass out-faint
Call at-visit
Take after-resemble

Phrasal verbs may consist of two or three words.

Examples

Two words

Make up-prepare, compensate for something, create a story
Bring up-raise a child, introduce an idea
Take off-remove something, run away, fly, succeed
Put on-wear clothes, switch, organize an event.
Bump into-meet
Drop by-visit

Three words

Catch up with-keep abreast
Check up on-examine, investigate
Come up with-contribute
Get along with- have a good relationship
Get away with-escape, blame
Get rid of-eliminate
Look down on-despise
Look up to-respect
Put up with-tolerate
Run out of-exhaust
Get through with-finish
Walk out on-leave somebody

In some phrasal verbs, the object may come after or may separate the two parts. These include

Call off-cancel
Do away-repeat a job
Find out-discover
Hold up-delay
Make up
Look up
Put off-postpone
Put out-extinguish
Turn down-reject
Turn up-raise the volume
Turn up
Lay off-sack
Pull down –demolish

NB: When the object of the following phrasal verb is a person, the two parts of the phrasal verb must be separated.

They called off this afternoons meeting.

They called this afternoons meeting off.

Some phrasal verbs cannot be separated.

Call on-visit
Get over-recover from sickness/disappointment
Look after
Look into
Take after
Bump into-meet accidentally

Phrasal verbs can be used transitively or intransitively.

Break down-stop functioning
Drop by-visit without appointment
Get by-survive
Grow up-get older.

Idiomatic expression

Idioms are expressions whose meaning is difficult or sometimes impossible to guess by looking at the meaning of the individual word it contains.

Have butterflies in your stomach-feel nervous
An icing on the cake-
Bitter pill to swallow-
waste not want not-warning against wastage
a rocket science-not difficult
keep one’s head above water-manage
give somebody a run for his money-not allow somebody easily
Throw the spanner in the works-prevent something from happening
Throw a tantrum-get angry
Take a French leave
Extend an olive branch
Fish in troubled water
Water under the bridge
Tip of the iceberg- small part of something
A storm in a cup of tea-
Hit below the belt
Bring to book-punish for wrong doing
Lend a hand-help
Throw in a white towel-surrender
Bite more than you can chew-do more than ability
Borrow a leaf-copy
Steal the show-attract attention
Bury the hatchet-stop being unfriendly and become friends
Bite the bullet-deal with a difficult situation

Teachers' Resources

ENGLISH LISTENING AND SPEAKING NOTES FOR FORM FOUR

October 5, 2025 Maverick John Leave a comment

LISTENING AND SPEAKING FOR FORM FOUR

LISTENING & SPEAKING

LISTENING COMPREHENSION AND NOTE-TAKING

FEATURES OF ORAL POETRY

Oral poetry refers to the verbal expression of feelings, ideas and thoughts using words arranged in their best possible order.
If sung, it is a song.

Features of Oral Poetry

Oral poetry has the following features:

It is composed and delivered by word of mouth.
Linguistic aspects such as tone and pitch are crucial in oral poetry in varying the meaning and the mood .
There is often solo and chorus pattern especially in sung poetry.
Accompanied with movement and dance.
The performer dresses in costumes in some sung poetry.
Musical instruments such as drums, horn can accompany the performance of poetry.
Rhythm or beat. It is a regular repeated pattern of sounds. It can be slow, fast, moderate, monotonous, or disjointed.
This refers to whether the song/poetry should be loud or soft. A lullaby should be sung softly while war song should be sung loudly as it engenders courage and aggression.

Features of Proverbs

Proverbs have features such as:

They are brief.
They contain wisdom.

Proverbs also have stylistic qualities.

Stylistic Qualities of Proverbs

Proverbs possess unique stylitic qualities like:

Mnemonic features such as alliteration, assonance and consonance.
Paradox

Let’s learn these from the example of proverbs :

Alliteration, example

Forgive and forget

Consonance, example,

Practice makes perfect.

Assonance, for example,

Upendapo, uendapo.
Where you like it, is where you must go.

This is a balance between two similar words, phrases, or clauses.

Examples

Nothing ventured, nothing gained.
Easy come, easy go.

Ellipsis

Some words are omitted.

Unneeded words are left out in order for us to fill what is missing.

Examples

Once bitten, twice shy.
Penny wise, pound foolish.

Hyperbole

An idea is exaggerated in order to evoke strong feelings, or to create a strong impression.

Example

The half is more than the whole.

Paradox

It is an apparently true statement that leads to, or intentionally expresses a contradiction or situation, which defies intuition.

Examples

The longest way is the shortest way home.
Absence make the heart grow fonder.

Personification , examples,

Hunger is the best cook.
Love is blind.

ETIQUETTE

TURN-TAKING

Being a cyclical process, turn taking starts with one person speaking, and continues as the speaker gives control to the next individual. This is then offered to another person and then back to the original speaker. Orderly conversation has to take place.

A turn is a crucial element within turn taking. Each person takes turn within the conversation – either in person or on phone.

Achieving Smooth Turn Taking

It is achieved with:

Using specific polite phrases, for example, those for,

Interrupting
Accepting the turn when offered it
Keeping your turn
Getting other people speaking, etc.

Using gestures to indicate you have completed what you are saying or that you want to say something. You drop your arm when you have completed and raise it when you want to say something.
Varying the intonation to show you have or have not finished speaking.
Use noises like ‘uming’ and ‘ahing’ while thinking so as not to lose your turn.

Turn Taking Cues

There are various ways of signaling a finished turn. They might be indicated when the current speaker:

Asks a question, for example, ‘ Did you want to add anything?’
Trails off (his/her voice becomes weaker to the extent you may not hear his words)
Indicates they are done speaking with a closing statement, for example, ‘That’s all I wanted to say.’or ’I think I have made my point.’
Uses marker words (those that allow the other a chance to speak), for example, ‘well…’ or ‘so…’
Drops the pitch or volume of their voice at the end of their utterance. This is the use of falling intonation.
Uses gestures to signal that another can contribute.

Violations in Turn-Taking

There are five well known turn-taking violations in a conversation. They are: interruptions, overlaps, grabbing the floor, hogging the floor, and silence. Do you know what they really are? If you don’t, read the explanations for the violations in that order.

Inhibiting the speaker from finishing their sentences during their turn.
Talking at the same time as the current speaker. This is interruptive overlap. However, cooperative overlap is encouraged as it shows you are interested in the message.
Interrupting and then taking over the turn before being offered it.
Taking over the floor and ignoring other people’s attempt to take the floor.
Remaining without saying anything for quite some time.

The List of Turn-Taking Phrase

To interrupt;

Before I forget, …
I don’t like to interrupt, but ….
I wouldn’t usually interrupt, but …
I’m afraid I have to stop you there.
I will let you finish in a minute/second/moment ….
May I interrupt?

To accept the turn when offered it;

I won’t take long.
What I wanted to say was …

To stop other people from interrupting you during your turn use;

I have just one more point to make
I have nearly finished
Before you have your say …
I haven’t quite finished my point yet
I know you’re dying to jump in, but….

To offer the turn to another use;

…., right?
But that’s enough from me.
Can you give me your thoughts on …?
Does anyone want to say anything before I move on?
How about you?

To take the turn back after being interrupted;

As I was saying (before I was interrupted)
To get back on topic…
Carrying on from where we left on…

Note: The list is endless, and you can come up with other appropriate phrases.

INTERRUPTING AND DISAGREEING POLITELY

English is a polite language. For this reason, it is advisable to indirectly contradict a person. It is rude to do it directly.
Although conversation is a two way street, interrupting a speaker is usually regarded as rude. However, at times you need to interrupt. When then can one interrupt?
You can only interrupt to:
Ask a question;
Make a correction;
Offer an opinion; and
Ask for clarification.

In this section, we shall learn how to interrupt and disagree politely.

Steps to Interrupting

It is important to take note of the following steps when interrupting a speaker during a conversation or during a discussion:

Signal to the speaker that you have something to contribute by implementing the body language such as:

Making eye contact;
Slightly raising your hand;
Sitting forward on your seat;
Quietly clearing your throat; or
Coughing quietly.

Wait patiently until the speaker pauses or incase of a lull in the conversation.
Speak clearly using polite phrases. These phrases will be learnt later.
Wait for the speaker to acknowledge your request to speak before you do so.
After you have spoken, thank the speaker and allow them continue.
Take a deep breath and calm yourself before interrupting when you feel angry or annoyed.
Take care to use low tone of voice.

Avoid:

Unnecessary interruptions.
Finishing speaker’s sentences.
Interrupting to correct the speaker unnecessarily.
Speaking harshly or using disparaging comments.

Phrases used in Interruption

Below is the list of phrases which you can use to politely interrupt someone:

May I say something here?
I am sorry to interrupt, but …
Excuse me, may I add to that…?
Do you mind if I jump in here?
Before we move on to the next point, may I add …?
Sorry, I didn’t catch that, is it possible to repeat the last point?
I don’t mean to intrude ….
Sorry to butt in, but …
Would this be a good time to ….?
Excuse the interruption, but …
I hate to interrupt, but …
I know it is rude to interrupt, but …

How to Disagree Politely

The tips that follow will help you handle disagreements without annoying the other person in a discussion or discussion:

Actively listen to the other person’s point of view. This helps in showing respect and understanding of the other person’s perspective.
Stay calm even if you feel angry.
Acknowledge the other person’s point of view before the buts.
Disagree only with the person’s idea but not he person.
Use polite phrases to respectfully disagree.
Speak in a low tone.
Give some credence to the other person’s point of view before challenging it. For example, say: It’s partly true that I bought this phone at a cheap price, but …

Disagreeing Politely Expressions

I agree up to a point, but …
I see your point, but …
That’s partly true, but …
I’m not so sure about that.
That’s not entirely true
I am sorry to disagree with you, but …
I’m afraid I have to disagree
I must take issue with you on that
It’s unjustifiable to say that..

NEGOTIATION SKILLS

This is the process of discussion between towo or more disputants, aimed at finding the solution to a common problem.
It is a method by which people settle their differences.
It is also the process by which a compromise or agreement is reached while avoiding arguiment.
There could be a difference between people with different aims or intentions, especially in business or politics. When this happens, they have to reach an agreement.
Negotiation skills will be helpful when:
Haggling over the price of something;
Negotiating with your employer e.g. for higher salary;
Negotiating for peace/ solving conflict;
Negotiating for better services; etc.

Stages Of Negotiation

Preparation comes first. During this time, ensure all the pertinent facts of the situation is known in order to clarify your own position. It will help in avoiding wasting time unnecessarily.
Discussion then follows. This is the time to ask questions, listen and make things easier to understand. At times, it is helpful to take notes to record all points put forward.
Negotiate towards a win-win outcome. Each party has to be satisfied at the end of the process.
Agreement comes after understanding both sides’ viewpoints and considering them.
Implement the course of action. If for example, paying the amount, it has to be paid.

Points Every Negotiator Should Consider

Ask questions, confirm and summarise. These three activities ensure that there is no confusion on what each party wants.
Acknowledge each other’s point of view. Show that you have listened to and understood their perspective. Show appreciation of the other person’s point of view.
Listen attentively to the other person.
Respond to negative comments and complaints. Avoid confrontational language.
Behave in a confident way, but don’t be rude. Make polite but firm requests.
Give options/alternatives. You can both win if you recognise that you share a common ground.

Exercise

You are planning to buy a new model car.

Write down three relevant facts you would want to know before going to buy the car.
State any three hints for the negotiators you would consider when haggling over the price of that car.

PAYING ATTENTION (LISTENING)

Listening is different from hearing. When you listen, you understand both the verbal and non verbal information.

Why should you listen? You listen:

To obtain information
To understand the message
For enjoyment
To learn

In this section, we shall learn the techniques of active listening.

Techniques of Paying Attention

In order to benefit from a talk as the listener, you should take note of the following key tips:

keep an open mind. Listen without judging the speaker or mentally criticizing their message they pass. You just have to hold your criticism and withhold judgment.
Familiarize yourself with the topic under discussion. Audience tend to listen more if they have idea of the topic being discussed. How then can one familiarize himself/ herself with the subject? They can do this by:

Reading from the books.
Reading from the internet.
Asking for ideas from those who know.

Use the speaker responses to encourage the speaker to continue speaking. You will also get the information you need if you do so. Some of the speaker responses we use include:

Slightly nodding the head, but occasionally.
Smile occasionally.
Using small verbal comments like yes, uh huh, mmmh, I see, etc.
Reflecting back e.g. you said …

Take notes on the important points. This can in itself be a distractor. You should therefore know when to and when not to take notes.
Listen for the main ideas. These are the most important points the speaker wants to get across and are repeated several times.
Wait for the speaker to pause before asking a clarifying question. Just hold back.
Avoid distractions. Don’t let your mind wander or be distracted by other people’s activities. If the room is too cold or too hot get the solution to that situation if possible.
Sit properly. Sit upright
Make eye contact with the speaker. when you do this you will be able to understand the non verbal messages too.

Signs of Inactive Audience

You can easily tell whether your audience listens or not. The inattentive listeners tend to posses the following characteristics:

Fidgeting
Doodling
Playing with their hair
Looking at a clock or watch
Picking their fingernails
Passing small pieces of paper to one another
Shifting from seat to seat
Yawning

Barriers to Effective Listening

There are many things that get in the way of listening and you should avoid these bad habits so as to become a more effective listener. These factors that inhibit active listening include;

Lack of interest in the topic being discussed.
Unfamiliarity with the topic under discussion.
One might fear being asked a question and in the process fail to look at the speaker.
In case of noise the listeners might not get what the speaker is saying.

Exercise 1

MwangiMwaniki, the author of one of the set text you study, is coming to your school to give a talk on the themes in his novel.

How would you prepare for this big day?
State what you would do to ensure you benefit from the talk during the presentation.

MASTERY OF CONTENT

ORAL REPORTS

From the heading, an oral report is spoken, not written.
Being oral, it doesn’t mean writing is not involved. As part of preparation, you have to write notes on the topic or at least an outline of points.
When asked to present an oral report you get the opportunity to practice your speaking skills.
A spoken report has various elements including an introduction, body and conclusion.

Preparation for Oral Reports

You can prepare by:

Researching on the topic. Get all the facts about what is known and unknown by your audience.
Take notes on the facts about the topic. Choose your words appropriately in the process.
Practice the report before presenting it. You may

Practice in front of a mirror.
Practice in front of friends or relatives.
Videotape your rehearsals.

More practice is required if it has to be memorized.

Plan on how to dress and groom.
Prepare the visual aids if you plan to use the them. Select the appropriate chart, picture, etc. that will make abstract ideas concrete.

Reporting

Stand up straight. Your upper body should be held straight, but not stiff. Do not fidget.
Make eye contact in order to look surer of yourself and to ensure your audience listens better.
Vary your tone appropriately and speak clearly.
Use gestures to make your points well understood and to keep the audience interested.
Pause at key points to let the point sick.
Speak loud enough for everyone to hear you.
If you have visual aids use them appropriately.

Exercise

You have seen thieves robbing your neighbor’s house. During this time you have your phone that you have used to capture one of the two robbers. The next day you are called at the police station to report on what occurred.

State any three ways you would prepare to deliver this oral report.
What three details would you include in your report?
How would you deliver the report to ensure the information is understood?

READING FOR FORM FOUR

READING SKILLS

NOTE-MAKING

How to Make Notes

The following tips will come in handy when making notes:

Read the material carefully and thoroughly.
Underline the key sentences as you read. This will help in forming the title.
Make a rough note of the main points in a logical sequence.
Write the final notes.

You should have in mind that a note:

Should be short and to the point.
Contain all the important and relevant information.
Should have information systematically divided and subdivided.
Should have a short title. Avoid long sentences as titles.
Must be written in points only.

Notes Template

TITLE …………………….

………………………………………….
…………………………………………
………………………………………..
………………………………………..

STUDY READING

Reading for study is a detailed reading that requires the reading speed to be slowed down.
You may have to fracture a single idea or concept in a sentence at a time, and you may need to go back over the text several times.
Some sections of material may require that you understand every sentence and that you know how each sentence, and sometimes each equation, relates to the next..
You could also try the following when reading for study:
Mark the text as you go. Highlight key concepts, and try to sort out which information will be critical to the lesson and assignment questions on which you will be working.
Use visual images.
When you try to visualize as you read a material you will understand what you read more.
If there are diagrams or illustrations in your study materials, learn to use them to complement the text.
When there is no diagram to illustrate a process or idea, make your own. Your own diagram will stick in your mind long after the descriptive words are forgotten.
Note new terms. Trying memorizing and finding their meanings.

SQ3R – Reading/Study System

SQ3R is a reading comprehension technique named for its five steps: survey, question, read, recite/recall, and review.
Follow the steps below to learn how to gather as much information as possible from the text requirements from any class.

1) SURVEY

Read the title to help your mind prepare to receive the subject matter at hand.
Read the introduction and/or summary..
Observe each boldface heading and subheading. This helps systematize your mind before you begin to read and build a structure for the thoughts and details to come.
Check for any graphics, for example, charts, maps, diagrams, which are meant to make a point. Don’t ignore them.
Notice reading aids like italics, bold face print, chapter objective, and end-of -chapter questions are all included to help you sort, comprehend, and remember.

2) QUESTION

This is where you assist your mind to engage and concentrate
Turn the boldface heading for each section into as many questions as you think will be answered in that section. The better the questions, the better your comprehension is likely to be. You may always add further questions as you proceed. When your mind is actively searching for answers to questions it becomes engaged in learning.

3) READ

Read one section at a time with your questions in mind and look for the answers. Recognize when you need to make up some new questions.

4) RECITE

After each part, stop and recall your questions and see if you can answer them from memory.
If you are unable to remember, look back at the text again , but don’t move to the next section until you can recite the answers from the previous one.

5) REVIEW

Once you’ve finished the entire chapter using the preceding steps, go back over the questions you create for every heading. See if you can still answer them. If not, look back and refresh your memory and then continue.

CRITICAL READING

Critical reading is an investigative activity.
The reader rereads a text to identify patterns of elements such as information, values, assumptions, and language usage throughout the discussion.
The above elements are tied together in an interpretation, a claim of an underlying meaning of the text as a whole.

Why Critical Reading?

We critically read so as to:

recognize an author’s purpose
understand tone and persuasive elements
recognize bias

INTERPRETIVE READING

In Interpretive reading, you read a selection of passages from a book, poem, or other piece of literature that have a similar theme.
One of the objectives is to read with feeling and energy, bringing out the emotion written into the passage. You begin with an intro and intersperse transitions and end with a conclusion.
Read the poem below from America and about an American woman. After it is the interpretation.

Mother to Son by Langston Hughes

Well, son, I’ll tell you:
Life for me hasn’t been no crystal stair.
It’s had tacks in it,
And splinters,
And boards torn up,
And places with no carpet on the floor —
Bare.

But all the time
I’ve been a-climbing’ on,
And reaching’ landings,
And turning’ corners,
And sometimes going’ in the dark
Where there hasn’t been no light.

So boy, don’t you turn back.
Don’t you set down on the steps
‘Cause you find it’s kinder hard.
Don’t you fall now —
For I’se still going’, honey,
I’se still climbin’,
And life for me ain’t been no crystal stair.

Interpretation

There are no one escapes in life without challenges that bring sadness and suffering. The woman was obviously poor and not as well educated. Suffering and perseverance appear to know no boundaries of race or class.

Ø Now try interpreting the message in the poem that follow.

SEE IT THROUGH by Edgar Guest

When you’re up against a trouble,
Meet it squarely, face to face;
Lift your chin and set your shoulders,
Plant your feet and take a brace.
When it’s vain to try to dodge it,
Do the best that you can do;
You may fail, but you may conquer,
See it through!

Black may be the clouds about you
And your future may seem grim,
But don’t let your nerve desert you;
Keep yourself in fighting trim.
If the worst is bound to happen,
Spite of all that you can do,
Running from it will not save you,
See it through!

Even hope may seem but futile,
When with troubles you’re beset,
But remember you are facing
Just what other men have met.
You may fail, but fall still fighting;
Don’t give up, whate’er you do;
Eyes front, head high to the finish.
See it through!

RECOGNIZING ATTITUDE AND TONE

Attitude is the author’s personal feelings about a subject.
Tone refers to how the author, narrator or speaker feels or conveys information about the subject
Tone is the use of stylistic devices to reveal that personal feeling.

Whether it is for the analysis of literature or historical essays, recognition of tone and its associated words is vital for effective understanding of the text.

Tone is the key to understanding the author’s attitude and developing the intended mood. All students respond to the tone of the text, whether they realize it or not.

Tone/Attitude Words

They can be categorized as:

Positive
Negative
Neutral
Ironic

POSITIVE

amiable
brave
calm
cheery
complimentary
confident
considerate
consoling
diplomatic
ecstatic
elated
elevated
encouraging
enthusiastic
grand
helpful
joyful
kind
learned
loving
optimistic
passionate
soothing

NEGATIVE

aggravated
agitated
angry
apprehensive
bitter
brash
caustic
disgusted
flippant
foreboding
furious
gloomy
grave
hopeless
indignant
inflammatory
insolent
insulting
irritated
malicious
melancholy
morose
mournful
obnoxious
quarrelsome
resigned
sad
sardonic
surly
testy
threatening
wrathful

NEUTRAL

authoritative
candid
clinical
conventional
didactic
factual
formal
forthright
informative
instructive
objective
restrained
sincere
standard
typical
usual

IRONIC

caustic
condescending
contemptuous
droll
facetious
indifferently
insolent
irreverent
patronizing
petty
whimsical
wry

Sample Passage

“Fifteen years ago I came here with Lily,” he thought. “We sat somewhere over there by a lake and I begged her to marry me all through the hot afternoon. How the dragonfly kept circling round us: how clearly I see the dragonfly and her shoe with the square silver buckle at the toe. All the time I spoke I saw her shoe and when it moved impatiently I knew without looking up what she was going to say: the whole of her seemed to be in her shoe. And my love, my desire, were in the dragonfly; for some reason I thought that if it settled there, on that leaf, she would say ‘Yes’ at once. But the dragonfly went round and round: it never settled anywhere — of course not, happily not, or I shouldn’t be walking here with Eleanor and the children.”

The speaker’s attitude may be described as nostalgic. The speaker looks at the past, remembering an afternoon when he “begged” a woman to accept his marriage proposal. He has nostalgic –feeling pleasure and longing for something in the past.

DISTINGUISHING FACTS FROM OPINIONS

Facts are statements that can be checked or proved.
Opinions are statements that cannot be proved. They tell what someone thinks or feels.
Opinions often contain clue words such as think, feel, believe, and seem. Other common clue words are always, never, all, none, most, least, greatest, best, and worst.
A fact is something that is true.
An opinion tells how a person feels about something.
Facts can be proven. Opinions cannot.

Are the following statements opinions or facts?

Giraffe is the tallest animal.
Uhuru Kenyatta is the best president ever.
We use pens to write.

INTENSIVE READING

ORAL LITERATURE

ORAL POETRY

Oral poetry refers to the verbal expression of feelings, ideas and thoughts using words arranged in their best possible order.
If sung, it is a song.

Features of Oral Poetry

Oral poetry has the following features:

It is composed and delivered by word of mouth.
Linguistic aspects such as tone and pitch are crucial in oral poetry in varying the meaning and the mood .
There is often solo and chorus pattern especially in sung poetry.
Accompanied with movement and dance.
The performer dresses in costumes in some sung poetry.
Musical instruments such as drums, horn can accompany the performance of poetry.
Rhythm or beat. It is a regular repeated pattern of sounds. It can be slow, fast, moderate, monotonous, or disjointed.
This refers to whether the song/poetry should be loud or soft. A lullaby should be sung softly while war song should be sung loudly as it engenders courage and aggression.

Classification of Oral Poetry

For purposes of study, oral poetry can be classified based on criteria that follow:

The performer of the poetry, for example, children’s songs
The theme, examples

Love poetry
Play songs
War songs
Initiation songs

Context of performance, examples

Dirges
Wedding songs
War poetry

Function, examples,

Praise songs/poetry
Teasing songs
lullabies
LULLABIES
they are sung by a nanny, sibling, aunty, etc.in order to:

Send the baby to sleep.
Calm the crying baby.
Give promise to the crying baby. The promise can be that one of the parents is coming back.

They are normally sung softly so as to lull the baby.
If you have to clap, or hum, or whistle to the rhythm, do it softly and slowly.
In the case where a child cries, rock the baby as you sing.
You can also gently tap the back of the baby.
They are normally short.
They are also repetitive.
Read the song below and then attempt the questions that follow.

Sleep baby sleep

Your father tends the sheep

Your mother shakes the dreamland tree.

Identify two features of lullabies in the above song.
Give the main reason for singing the above song.

How would you do the following as you sing the song:

Clap to the rhythm of the song.
Rock the baby as you sing.

children songs
They are sung by children during their playtime.
Also referred to as play songs.

Features of Children Songs

Repetition is used. A word, sentence, and even a whole stanza can be repeated.
They are often short.

Functions of Children’s Songs

They help in developing children’s language skills as they listen to familiar words in the songs.
Help develop children’s listen skills, thus concentrate.
Encourage creativity in children. At times you find children adding words that were not initially mentioned in the original versions of the songs.
Some teaching counting of numbers.

Now read the song below. You can practice singing it.

In and out the bamboo forest

You are my partner.

Beat a beat on my shoulder

You are my partner.

Teasing Songs
Sung to make fun of someone.
Religious Poetry
Sung and performed during religious occasions.
Sung mostly at places considered holy grounds.
Sung softly and slowly.
Love Poetry/Songs
They are based on romance.
Sung by one to the loved one.
They are sung softly and slowly as they should present romantic elements.
They are sung to:

Express romance.
Mend the damaged relationship between lovers.

Cradle Songs/Poetry
Performed to mark the birth of a child.
In most cases, a child is wished a successful life in future.
Mostly performed by women and girls.
During this time, a child or child’s mother is presented with gifts.
War Poetry
Performed by warriors during war.
Sung loudly to show bravery.
During the singing, weapons are held in the hands of the performers.

Hunting Songs
Hunters perform hunting songs.
Sung on the way to and from hunting trip.
Hunting tools carried in the process.
Just like war songs, they are sung loudly.
They are on the way to hunt to encourage themselves on the possibility of killing fatter and enough animals.
Also to pass time on their way.

Satirical Poetry
One’s folly is criticized in this song.
They are meant to help the wicked in some areas to change.
Epics/Heroic Poetry
They are elaborate and talk about the lives of heroes known to the community.
The heroic deeds of the heroes are mentioned.
Dirges
Also referred to as funeral songs or funeral poems.
They are sung after learning about the death of someone.
Can also be sung during the funeral ceremony.
Should also be sung softly to show the sadness that result from losing someone’s beloved one.
In some cases, weapons are held during the performance.
There is the use of apostrophe. This is style of addressing an object or a death as if it is alive and can respond.
While women sing, men chant.
Panegyrics
In its specialized form panegyric is a type of oral poetry and one meant to praise someone.
The praise song can be sung by someone else or sung by one for self praises. Sometimes these are self-praises
Formalized praises are directed publicly to kings, chiefs, and leaders, composed and recited by members of a king’s official entourage.
One can be praised in case of:

personal achievement in war ; or
Achievement in hunting.

What else is praised in a Panegyric?

In eastern and southern Africa cattle form a popular subject in praise poetry, and inanimate things like divining implements or even a train or bicycle are also praised.
In West Africa, apparently unlike other areas, formal praises are addressed to supernatural beings.

Look at the panegyric below.

Ogun kills on the right and destroys on the right.
Ogun kills on the left and destroys on the left.
Ogun kills suddenly in the house and suddenly in the field.
Ogun kills the child with the iron with which it plays.

Ogun kills in silence.
Ogun kills the thief and the owner of the stolen goods.
Ogun-kills the owner of the slave—and the slave runs away.
Ogun kills the owner of thirty ’iwofa’ [pawns]—and his money, wealth and children disappear.
Ogun kills the owner of the house and paints the hearth with his blood.
Ogun is the death who pursues a child until it runs into the bush.
Ogun is the needle that pricks at both ends.
Ogun has water but he washes in blood.

Ogun do not fight me. I belong only to you.
The wife of Ogun is like a tim tim [decorated leather cushion].
She does not like two people to rest on her.

Ogun has many gowns. He gives them all to the beggars.
He gives one to the woodcock—the woodcock dyes it indigo.
He gives one to the coucal—the coucal dyes it in camwood.
He gives one to the cattle egret—the cattle egret leaves it white.

Ogun is not like pounded yam:
Do you think you can knead him in your hand
And eat of him until you are satisfied?
Ogun is not like maize gruel:
Do you think you can knead him in your hand
And eat of him until you are satisfied?
Ogun is not like something you can throw in your cap:
Do you think you can put on your cap and walk away with him?

Ogun scatters his enemies.
When the butterflies arrive at the place where the cheetah excretes,
They scatter in all directions.

The light shining on Ogun’s face is not easy to behold.
Ogun, let me not see the red of your eye.

Ogun sacrifices an elephant to his head.
Master of iron, head of warriors,
Ogun, great chief of robbers.
Ogun wears a bloody cap.
Ogun has four hundred wives and one thousand four hundred children.
Ogun, the fire that sweeps the forest.
Ogun’s laughter is no joke.
Ogun eats two hundred earthworms and does not vomit.
Ogun is a crazy orisha [deity] who still asks questions after 780 years.
Whether I can reply, or whether I cannot reply,
Ogun please don’t ask me anything.

The lion never allows anybody to play with his cub.
Ogun will never allow his child to be punished.

Ogun do not reject me!
Does the woman who spins ever reject a spindle?
Does the woman who dyes ever reject a cloth?
Does the eye that sees ever reject a sight?
Ogun, do not reject me! [Ogun needs his worshippers]. (Gbadamosi and Beier 1959: 21–2)

, like the personal recitations of the Hima noble class of Ankole in which a man celebrates his military achievements, building his poem on a sequence of praise names:

I Who Am Praised thus held out in battle among foreigners along with The Overthrower;
I Who Ravish Spear In Each Hand stood resplendent in my cotton cloth;
I Who Am Quick was drawn from afar by lust for the fight … (Morris 1964: 42)

5Praises of kings are the most formal and public of all, ranging from the relatively simple Ganda praise of the powerful nineteenth-century king Mutesa cited by the Chadwicks:

Thy feet are hammers,
Son of the forest [a comparison with a lion]
Great is the fear of thee;
Great is thy wrath;
Great is thy peace;
Great is thy power

Look not with too friendly eyes upon the world,
Pass your hand over your face in meditation,
Not from the heat of the sun.
The bull elephant is wise and lives long.

Stylistic Devices in Oral Poetry/Songs

Here, we shall discuss two areas of performance:

The context of performance. Key here are:

Where the song is performed.
The occasion when the song is performed.
Target audience.
The performer of the poetry.

What the performer is doing as he/she performs the song.

The singer/performer can do the following as he/she performs the song/oral poetry:

Use facial expressions to depict the emotion in the poem or song.
Vary the tone to show the enotion in the poem. Also to show the speed of events.
Use gestures to reinforce the what is being said.
Accompanying instruments and costume.

Stylistic Devices in Oral Poetry

An oral poetry can have textual poetic techniques like:

Satire
Irony
Sarcasm
Figures of speech such as imagery, symbolism, etc.
Humour
Suspense
Allusion
Mnemonic features such as rhyme, assonance, alliteration, consonance, etc,

PROVERBS

A proverb is a brief statement full of hidden meaning and which expresses wisdom and truth.
The term adage, or wise saying, is sometimes used to mean the same thing as a proverb.
It is one of the short forms of oral literature. Other short forms are tongue twisters, riddles, and puns.

Classification of Proverbs

There are three approaches to classifying proverbs.
Proverbs are classified according to:
The theme
Alphabetical letters
Function served.
Styles used
According to the Theme

Thematically, proverbs can be classified as:

Proverbs on fate
Proverbs on authority

Proverbs on greed

Proverbs on love
Proverbs on marriage
Proverbs on co-operation

Proverbs on arrogance
Proverbs on communal life, etc.
According to the Alphabetical Letters

Alphabetically, proverbs can be categorized as:

“A” proverbs if the first words begin with letter “A”.
“B” proverbs

“K” proverbs, etc.
According to the Function served by the Proverb

Functionally, proverbs can be classified as:

Cautionary proverbs, which warn against what is undesirable.
Normative proverbs, which reinforce what the community considers acceptable and desirable.

Summative proverbs. They summarize issues and even narratives.
According to Styles Used

Stylistically, classify proverbs as:

Alliterative proverbs
Onomatopoeic proverbs

Repetitive proverbs

Epigrammatic proverbs if they are longer, and consist of two parts.

Proverb Classified

Wajua tamu yaua sumu umenipiani?

You know that sweetness kills, why have you given me poison?

Classifying the Proverb

Alphabetically	Stylistically	Thematically	Functionally
“W” Proverb	Interrogative	love	Normative

Features of Proverbs

Proverbs have features such as:

They are brief.
They contain wisdom.

Proverbs also have stylistic qualities.

Stylistic Qualities of Proverbs

Proverbs possess unique stylitic qualities like:

Mnemonic features such as alliteration, assonance and consonance.
Paradox

Let’s learn these from the example of proverbs :

Alliteration, example

Forgive and forget

Consonance, example,

Practice makes perfect.

Assonance, for example,

Upendapo, uendapo.
Where you like it, is where you must go.

This is a balance between two similar words, phrases, or clauses.

Examples

Nothing ventured, nothing gained.

Easy come, easy go.

Ellipsis

Some words are omitted.

Unneeded words are left out in order for us to fill what is missing.

Examples

Once bitten, twice shy.

Penny wise, pound foolish.

Hyperbole

An idea is exaggerated in order to evoke strong feelings, or to create a strong impression.

Example

The half is more than the whole.

Paradox

It is an apparently true statement that leads to, or intentionally expresses a contradiction or situation, which defies intuition.

Examples

The longest way is the shortest way home.

Absence make the heart grow fonder.

Personification , examples,
Hunger is the best cook.

Love is blind.

Functions of Proverbs

Proverbs play the following roles:

Normative functions. Proverbs:
Congratulate
Give suggestions

Warn

Advise
Request, etc
Aesthetic functions. When we use proverbs in speech, we make it more appealing.
Convey wisdom.
Summarize experiences.

Activities

The following are Swahili proverbs. Classify them according to the criteria learnt earlier.

Adui mpende, kumchukia ni kumchukia ndugu yako.
Love [your] enemy, your hating is like having your own brother.

Adui mpende leo, yawezekana mkawa rafiki kesho.
Love an enemy today; it is possible that you might become friends tomorrow.

Aliyekunyoa shungi kakupunguzia kuchana.
The one who cut your curls took away your need of combing.

Nampenda mtu pindi anipendapo.
I love someone when that person loves me.

Asio adui si mtu.
A person who has no enemies is not a human being.

Asiyekuridhi mridhi.
Please the one who does not please you.

Aliyekuridhi nawe umridhi.
The one who agrees with you, agree with that person.

Chako kikioza hakikunukii.
Even if your sore is putrefied, you don’t smell the bad odor.
You don’t see your own bad behavior or that of your family and if you see it you don’t hate is as other people do.

Mkono wenye uchafu husafishwa, haukatwi.
A dirty hand is cleaned, not cut.

Chozi la akupendaye hutoka kwenye chongo.
The tears of one who loves you will come even from a bad eye.

Chuki humchoma anayeihifadhi.
Hate burns its preserver.
Do not nurse hatred, it will hurt you.

Dawa ya meno ni meno.
The remedy for teeth is teeth.
Tit for tat; a tooth for a tooth

Sumu ya neno ni neno.
The poison of a word is

Dawa ya moto ni moto.
The cure against fire is fire.
Fight fire with fire.

Fitina ikidhihiri ubaya hukithiri.
When the quarrel gets in the open, evil will grow.

Hasikii la mwadhini wala la mtia maji msikitini.
So and So does not listen to the muezzin nor to the one who puts water [for the ritual ablutions] in the mosque.
Heri moyo mkubwa kuliko akili kubwa.
A big heart is better than a big brain.

Heshima ni moyo.
Respect is of the heart.

Humpendaje mtu kwa kwambiwa penda?
How is one to love a person by being told [to] love someone.

Huwezi kurudisha mahaba na maisha.

You cannot bring back love or life.
Understood: Once they have gone.

Inyeshapo mvua, aliye ndani hajali.
When it rains, the one inside does not worry.

Ikiwa unawapenda watoto wa wengine, utawapenda wako zaidi.
If you love other people’s children, you will love your own even more.

Kipendacho moyo ni dawa.
What the heart desires is like medicine to it.

Mkono wako ukichafuka, huukati.
If your hand gets soiled, you do not cut it off.

Wema hauwezi kuepuka meno ya kusudi.
Goodness cannot escape the teeth of envy.

Ya kale hayapo.
The ancient things are with us no longer.
Let bygones be bygones.

Ya mahaba ndio maradhi upeo.
The intoxication of love is the worst disease.

RIDDLES

A riddle is a short saying intended to make one to use his wits in discovering the hidden meaning.
Familiar objects or situations are referred to in a figurative terms for us to figure out what is meant.

Classification of Riddles

Riddles are classified according to the criteria below:

Simplicity or complexity of the riddle
Objects mentioned in the riddle
Style and structure of the riddle

Simplicity or Complexity
A simple riddle is brief and straightforward.
A riddle is complex when it is long and is presented in a series of puzzles.
According to Objects Mentioned
A riddle can be classified according to the object referred to in that riddle.
A riddle can therefore be classified as:
Riddle on people
Riddle on waste product, e.g. human waste
Riddles on cultural objects
Natural phenomena, like rocks
Domestic animals
Plants
Birds
Parts of the body
And others
Style and Structure
A style is also crucial in classifying riddles.
According to the style and structure, riddles can be classified as:
Declarative riddles are presented as direct descriptions.
Epigrammatic riddles, which are presented as series of puzzles.
Idiophonic riddles use idiophones.
Interrogative riddles are posed as questions.

Characteristics of Riddles

They are short and brief.
Use personification.
Use of metaphor.
Use of idiophones.
Use of onomatopoeic words.
Use repetition

Riddling Process

There are two parties involved: the audience (respondents) and the challenger(or the riddler).
There are basically four stages of a riddling process, but at times six.
The parts of the riddling process are:
The riddler challenges the audience. The challenge differs from community to community. Some phrases used here include: riddle riddle!, I have a riddle! Etc.
The respondents accept the challenge. The invitations include: riddle come! Throw it! Etc.
The riddler then poses the riddle.
The guess or guesses. The audience tries to come up with the solution. If they are unable, then the next part follows.
The challenger asks for a prize. The prize can be a town or city, or any other thing. The challenger accepts the prize.
Then the solution is given by the challenger.

Functions of Riddles

They entertain. Entertainment arises from the objects they refer to.
They educate. Language is taught. The environment is also understood better.
They teach values.
Help develop the ability to think faster.
Logical reasoning of participants are improved.

Sample Maasai Riddles Riddle	Answer
Kidung’ ang’ata bkira aare nimiking’amaro? The two of us cross the wilderness without talking to each other.	Iyie oloip lino You and your shadow.
Edung’ ng’utunyi olosinko erumisho enebanji? Your mother walks across the village with something issuing out (of her body)?	Enkeju enkerai The leg of a baby (you’ll often see a baby’s leg protruding from the cloth sling or swaddle with which mothers tie their young children to their back)
Anaa ipi nabaa o nabaa nimintieu atakedo enkashe e kikoris enkoriong? Why are you so brave yet you cannot sit on the back of the heifer from Kilgoris?	Eremet Because it is a spear. (there may have been some blacksmiths who lived at Kilgoris in the old days, so the spear may have been made and brought from there).
Mugie ai naten ilasho? My brown one with speedy calves?	Enkawuo o mbaa The bow and arrows
Ting’iria maaishaki? Will you observe while I put it all inside you?	Olalem opiki enchashur The sword that is being put into the sheath (an obvious sexual pun)
Anaa ipi nabaa o nabaa nimitonie enetonie entito nayok? Why are you so brave yet you cannot sit at the place where the little black girl sits?	Emoti Because it is the fire (the little black girl is the pot which has turned black with soot)
Anaa keidurraki neini nanyokie? They moved homes and the red one was born?	Enkima The fire (the Maasai often burn up the old village when they move)
Tamanai teidia alo oldoinyio matamanu tena nimikitumo aikata Go round one side of the mountain while I go round the other side, but we shall never meet.	Nkiyiaa The ears (ears do not move)
Or nememanyi, ore pee emanyi neishiri? There is a bare place where no one ever settles, and if one did so, there would be crying. What is it?	Enkong’u The eye
Olkiteng’ lai otii erishata oolmang’ati? I have an ox that lives in the midst of enemies?	Olng’ejep The tongue
Anaa iten nabaa o nabaa niminepu kapironto etagore? Why are you such a fast runner yet you cannot catch up with the Kavirondo (Luo) when he is annoyed?	Olojong’ani Because he is the fly
Anaa aidorrop enkanashe ino nemeeta olng’anayioi oing’ataa? Why is your sister so very short yet there is no fruit that is beyond her reach?	Entaritiki A bird

PUNS/WORD PLAY

A pun is a form of word play that suggests several meanings, by either exploiting the multiple meanings of a word, or substituting a word for another similar sounding word, the result of which is humorous.

A pun is also known as paronomasia.

There are two main types of puns:

Homophonic puns

This is where a word is substituted for another similar sounding word or word pronounced almost in the same way . For example,

Fishermen are reel men.

Explanation: There is a twist on the word ‘reel’ which is originally supposed to be spelt ‘real’.

Can you now explain the pun in the following homophonic puns?

What do sea monsters eat for lunch? Fish and ships.
I am on a seafood diet. Every time I see food, I eat it.
Did you about the Italian chef with terminal illness? He past away.
Beauty is in the eye of the beer holder.
What tea do hockey players drink? Penalttea
What do ghosts serve for dessert? I scream.
What did the tree sya to the autumn? Leaf me alone.
What did the boy cat say to the girl cat on valentine’s day? You’re purr-fect for me.
What day does an Easter egg hate the most? Fry-days.
Why did the scientist install a knocker on his door? He wanted to win the No-bell prize!

Homographic puns

Homographic pun is formed by using a word that has multiple meanings. You might not tell what exactly what the speaker means.

For example;

Rose is the flower of my life.

Explanation: The word ‘Rose’ is a female name. it could be the person the speaker loves.

It is also a type of flower.

The other examples are;

My math teacher called me average. How mean!
What do prisoners use to call each other? Cell phones.
No matter how much you push the envelope, it’ll remain stationery.
Have you ever tried to eat a clock? It’s very time consuming.
A waist is a terrible thing to mind.
I am reading a book about anti-gravity. It’s impossible to put down.
What part of football ground is never the same? The changing room.
I want to tell you a chemistry joke but I know I will not get a reaction.
Why did the bee get married? Because he found his honey.
Did you hear about the guy who got hit in the head with a can of soda? He was lucky it was a soft drink.

Features of Puns

Puns are characterized by;

They are short.
They are humorous.

Functions of Puns

They serve functions such as:

Teaching pronunciation. For example, homophones.
Enhancing creativity. One has to think in order to form their puns.
When said one wonders what the speaker intends, the audience will laugh.

Exercise

Explain the pun in:

I used to be a banker but I lost interest.
A bicycle can’t stand on its own because it is two-tired.
I don’t trust these stairs because they are always up to something.
Santa’s helpers are known as subordinate clauses.
The man who drank battery acid got charged.

TONGUE TWISTERS

A phrase or a sentence which is hard to speak fast because of alliteration or a sequence of nearly similar sounds is the tongue twister.
It is worth noting that there is usually the use of mnemonic feature (sound devices or sound patterns) in the tongue twisters.
Let us read the following tongue twisters fast.
She sells sea shells on the sea shore.
Any noise annoys an oyster but noisy noise annoys an oyster more.
Kindly kittens knitting mittens keep kazooing in the king’s kitchen.

Sound Patterns in Tongue Twisters

Read the tongue twister below fast.

She saw a fish on the seashore and I am sure the fish she saw on the sea shore was a saw-fish.

In the words: she, shore and sure, there is the repetition of the consonant sound /ᶴ/ at the beginning of the words. This is alliteration.

Alliteration is the repetition of the initial consonant sound in the nearby words.

Can you identify any other instance of alliteration in the above tongue twister?

Read this other tongue twister and take note of the highlighted letters.

A skunk sat on a stump and thank the stump stunk, but the stump thank the skunk stunk.

The sound pattern here is consonance.

Consonance is the repetition of the inner consonant sound in the nearby words. An inner sound is that which comes after the first.

There is another instance of consonance. Can you illustrate it?

Repetition

In most tongue twisters, there is repetition of words or phrases. In (1) above, the words ‘saw’, ‘fish’, etc. have been repeated.
Now pick out the words and phrases repeated in these tongue twisters.
If you tell Tom to tell a tongue twister, his tongue will be twisted as tongue twister twists tongues.
The sixth sick Sheik’s sixth sheep’s sick.

Assonance

Let’s look at:

How much wood could a wood chopper chop, if a wood chopper could chop wood?

There is repetition of the /u:/ in the words; wood,could. This is assonance.

Assonance is the repetition of vowel sounds in the nearby words.

Features of Tongue Twisters

A tongue twister will have the following features:

it is short and brief.
It is alliterative.

Functions of Tongue Twisters

They entertain. When one confuses the pronunciation of sounds, the audience will laugh.
They teach pronunciation. We can, for example, learn the pronunciation of the sounds /f/ and /v/, /s/ and /ᶴ/ etc.
Enhance creativity.

Exercise 1

With illustrations, identify the sound patterns in:

It’s not the cough that carries you off, it’s the coffin they carry you off in!
If two witches were watching two watches, which witch would watch which watch?
If a black bug bleeds black blood, what colour of blood does a blue bug bleed?
I wish to wash my Irish watch.

Exercise 2

Read the item below and then answer questions after it:

We surely shall see the sun shine soon.

Identify the genre.
Which two sounds has the item been used to teach?

GRAMMAR FOR FORM FOUR

PARTS OF SPEECH

NOUNS

FUNCTIONS OF NOUNS IN SENTENCES

The noun functions in a sentence are:

It can be the subject of a verb. Examples,
My niece chairs the meetings.

“My niece” is the subject of the verb “chairs”.

The deer ate all my flowers.
The students are doing assignment.
Jane is washing my clothes.
It can be the direct object of a verb. Examples,
I will buy bread.

“Bread” is the direct object of the verb”buy”.

I like you.
The dog bit the postman.
It can be an Indirect object of a verb, for example,
He called me Helen.

“me” is the indirect object.

Timothy bought Kamjesh

PRONOUNS

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS
We use interrogative pronouns to ask questions.
An interrogative pronoun represents that thing we don’t know and that is why we ask question about it.
There are four main interrogative pronouns:
Who
Whom
What
Which
It worth noting that the possessive “whose” can also be used as an interrogative pronoun – commonly known as an interrogative possessive pronoun.
“who”, “whom”, and “whose” are used to represent a human being.
“What” represents a thing , but sometimes, a person.

Interrogative Pronouns and Case

An interrogative pronoun can either be in the subjective case or in the objective case.
When the pronoun is in the subjective case we use the forms,

Who
What

Which

Who came last?

Domnic came last.

Which pleases you?

Horror movie pleases me?

The nouns represented by such pronouns are the subjects in the response.

“What” and “which” can also be in the objective case. Consider:

What have you seen?

I have seen a new towel.

“A new towel” is the object of the verb “seen”. “What” that is representing it in the first sentence is also the object.

Which did you see first?

I saw the black car first.

“Whom” is the correct form when the pronoun is the object of the verb. For example,

Whom did you meet?

I met Abraham.

“Whom” represents “Abraham”, which is the object of the verb “meet”

Whom do you like?

RELATIVE PRONOUNS
A relative pronoun introduces a relative clause.
A relative pronoun relates to the word it modifies. For example,

The man who died last night is my neighbour.

In this example, the relative pronoun “who” relates to the noun “man” which it modifies.

It also introduces the relative clause “who died last night”

There are five main relative pronouns. They are:
Who
Whom
Whose
Which
That
Who (subject) and whom (object) are used for people.
Whose is for possession.
Which is for things. That is also for things.

Examples in Sentences

The car, which the terrorists used, exploded.
The driver whom I called yesterday will be here soon.

Patients whose relatives are wealthy pay extra.

The car that left she drives is new.
The doctor whose phone is switched off has left.
The teacher, who is tall, is my class teacher.

My cousin, whose car has been washed, is an engineer.
Whose can be used with things. Of which can be a substitute. For example,

The security officer is looking for the phone whose owner is complaining.

The security officer is looking for the phone of which the owner is complaining.

Exercise

Fill in the correct relative pronoun.

I am talking to the boy _____________ bike is missing.
The lady, ______________ Jonathan married, is seeking my guidance.
Joel, ______________ is the new school principal, has bought a secondhand car.
The truck __________ carried the garbage was white.
This is the girl ____________ comes from Moyale.
The teacher, _____________ every student likes, is really kind.
We often visit our uncle in Garbatula ______________ is in Isiolo.
The car, ______________ driver is a young man, is from Kitui.
What did you do with the money ____________ your mother gave you?
The children, ________________ shouted in the street, are not from Mwingi.
Look at the donkeys _________________ are grazing in the field.
Thank you for sending me the letter ________________ was very interesting.
I am the girl _________ George dated for years.
That is Peter, the priest __________ has just been ordained bishop.
I put my pencils in my bag, ___________ is on the chair.

VERBS

PARTICIPLE PHRASES
A participle with one or more objects or modifiers forms a participle phrase. The sentence below illustrates this.

The cat eating meat and fish belongs to me.

In the sentence, underlined phrase is the participle phrase.

The participle in this phrase is “eating”

Meat and fish are the objects.

A participle phrase modifies nouns. In the examples below, the participle phrases are underlined while the words modified are in boldface.

Washed with soap and water, the skirt looked bright.
The house, painted yellow and white, appeared new.

Participle phrases function as adjectives in a sentence.
A participle phrase is used to combine sentences two or more sentences, or to shorten them. For example,
The teacher sat in his office. He sent the secretary to call Jonathan.

Sitting in his office, the principal sent the secretary to call Jonathan.

I forgot my pen at home. I borrowed a pen from Elianto.

Having forgotten my pen at home, I borrowed one from Elianto.

The author is being interviewed. The author is a Caribbean.

The author being interviewed is a Caribbean.

Have you read this novel? It was written by Margaret Ogola.

Have you read this poem written by Margaret Ogola?

I am a vegetarian. I don’t eat meat.

Being a vegetarian, I don’t eat meat.

Exercise

Combine the pair of sentences using a participle phrase. The first one has been done for you.

The students worked around the clock. They completed the project.

Working around the clock, the students completed the project.

The student was frustrated by lack of progress. The student dropped out of school.
The dog was wounded. The dog stumbled through the muddy field.
The man threw out the television. The television was broken.
Martha was listening to loud music. Martha could not hear her parent calling.
The man was sitting in the library. He was reading a newspaper.
She walked home. She met an old friend.
The dog wagged its tail. It bit the thief.
The technician was working in the lab. He cut his finger.
Njoroge was relaxing on his chair. Njoroge fell asleep.
The man was disappointed. He stomped his foot and left angrily.

GERUNDS
A gerund is a noun formed by adding “-ing” to a base form of a verb. For example,

Reading

Smoking

Drinking

Swimming etc

A gerund can be used as the subject or the complement of a sentence. For example,
Learning is important. “Learning” is the subject.
The most important thing is learning. “Learning” here is the complement.

ADJECTIVES

TYPICAL ENDINGS OF ADJECTIVES
Adjectives end in various suffixes. These suffixes include:

–able or –ible, for example,

Achievable
Capable
Illegible
Incredible
Remarkable
Understandable, etc

–al, for example,

Functional
Internal
Influential
Logical
Beneficial
Mathematical
Chemical
Physical, etc

–ic, for example,

Manic
Terrific
Historic
Cubic
Rustic
Artistic, etc

–ful, for example,

Careful
Hopeful
Helpful
Bashful
Beautiful
Grateful
Harmful, etc

–less , for example,

Harmless
Fearless
Careless
Jobless
Ruthless
Breathless
Groundless
Restless, etc

–ive , for example,

Dismissive
Attractive
Submissive
Persuasive
Inventive
Intuitive, etc

–ous , for example,

Dangerous
Disastrous
Fabulous
Gorgeous
Mysterious
Courageous
Adventurous, etc

Exercise

Fill in the correct form of word in brackets to complete the sentence.

They live in a ________________ town. (beauty)
She is wearing a ___________ shirt today. (sleeve)
Gloria and the driver are ____________ individuals. (talk)
The doll has ____________ arms. (move)
We had to be _______________ not to be seen. (care)
The woman went to a ___________ restaurant. (fashion)
She is a very _____________ woman. (attract)
That is a ______________ issue. (content)
Do you remember ___________ visit in Kenya? (pope)
how she landed the job remains _____________ . (question)

FUNCTIONS OF ADJECTIVES

Adjectives perform the following functions in sentences:

They modify noun phrases.
They function as subject complements.

They also function as object complements.

Function as appositives.

Adjectives as noun, Pronoun,Noun Phrase Modifiers

An adjective can describe a noun, pronoun, or a noun phrase. For example,

My niece brought yellow
The tiny cat ate all the meat.

The students picked someone stupid to lead them.

The cook served us bland African salad.

Adjectives as Subject Complements

A subject complement is a word, phrase, or a clause that follows a linking verb (copular verb like is, are, appears, etc), and describes the subject.
Adjective phrases that function as subject complements are also known as predicate adjectives.
The underlined words are the adjectives describing the subjects in boldface:

The bread tastes
She is tall.

My coat is black.

Adjectives as Object Complements

An object complement is a word, phrase, or a clause that directly follows and modifies the direct object.
In the sentences that follow, the direct objects have been underlined, while the adjectives are in boldface.

The carpenter painted the table red.
Catholics consider saints holy.

You make them sad.

Adjectives as Appositives

An appositive is a word, phrase, or a clause that supports another word, phrase, or clause by describing that word, phrase, or clause.
In the sentences that follow, appositives have been italicized.

The boy, hungry and exhausted, passed out.
Aware of our approach, the terrorist flee.

The lady, rich and kind, cleared my bill.

Can you tell what they modify? They modify “the boy”, “the terrorist”, and “the lady”, respectively.

ADVERBS

POSITION OF ADVERBS IN SENTENCES
There are three normal positions for adverbs in a sentence:

Initial position – before the subject
Mid position – between the subject and the verb
End position – after the verb

Notice that different types of adverbs favour different positions.

Initial Position

Adverbs that favour this position are:

Adverbs of time, when contrasting with a previous reference of time, for example,

The pastor arrived early today, but tomorrow he will be late.

“Tomorrow” precedes the subject “he”

Comment and viewpoint adverbs like officially, luckily, presumably, etc.

Officially, Mr. Brown is the new school security guard.

Mid Position

Some adverbs used in this position are:

Focusing adverbs like just, even
Adverbs of indefinite frequency like often, never, always, etc
Adverbs of certainty, for example, obviously, probably, etc
Adverbs of degree such as clearly

Examples in Sentences

Jane has just been to Kericho.
I am obviously the tallest girl here.

I am almost

End Position

Adverbs of time and those of definite frequency favour this position. They are like every month, last year, etc. for example

I watched the game last week.
They travel to Nairobi often.

Adverbs of manner such as quickly, well, etc, also favour this position.

She drove the car
The athlete ran fast.

Exercise 1

Rewrite the complete sentence using the adverb in brackets in its correct position.

Charles must travel. (also)
She was kidding. (only)
Did you do the assignment? (both)
The priest sees movies. (hardly)
He talks to them. (carefully)
The bag was hidden. (under the bed)
They left the school. (yesterday)
Samantha fell off the bike. (almost)
Her teacher will reward her hard work. (probably)
Daniel is getting transferred this month. (definitely)

Exercise 2

The sentences below are jumbled up. Arrange the words to make correct sentences.

Haven’t lately him talked to I
I’ll him soon see
She help asked immediately for
You where now are?
Loudly barks the dog
She secretly him met
Out sneaked house of they quietly out
Won hasn’t my lately club
Carefully plays piano the brother my
Speaks well English Njeri

TYPICAL ENDINGS OF ADVERBS
Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives,, or other adverbs.
Adverbs often tell how, when, where, why, or under what conditions things happen.

Adverb Endings

Most adverbs end in “-ly”. They are formed by adding –ly to an adjective. For example,

Softly
Quickly

Slowly

Gradually
Electronically
Carefully

Horribly etc

In comparative and superlative forms, some adverbs change their endings. For example
Run faster if you if you don’t want to be late.
The student who runs fastest will be the one to receive the award.
There are those adverbs that end in –wards, for example,
Towards
Homewards
Downwards
Backwards etc
There are adverbs that end in –wise, for example,
Likewise
Otherwise
Clockwise
Lengthwise etc
There are those that end in –where, for example,
Nowhere
Everywhere
Somewhere, etc

Examples in Sentences

I am going nowhere.
He drove

Exercise

Complete the following sentences using the correct forms of words in brackets.

She laughed _______________ . (happy)
Jane is always _____________ dressed. (smart)
There is ___________ no water left in the basin. (near)
The cow could ____________ walk after the bus knocked it. (hard)
We are going for break ___________ . (short)
I ran _________ . (quick)
The wind is blowing __________ . (east)
That was the _______________ done performance I have seen I seen in years. (skill)
Edith did the assignment ___________ . (easy)
Can you turn __________ ? (clock)
Helen spoke about her teacher ____________ . (dramatic)
His temperature went up ________ . (fast)

PREPOSITIONS

FUNCTIONS OF PREPOSITIONS IN SENTENCES

Prepositions as Adjectives

Prepositional phrases modify the nouns. For example,

Give me the pencil next to the book.

The prepositional phrase “next to the book” modifies the noun “pencil”. We know which pencil that is needed.

Park the car behind the house

Prepositions as Adverbs

A prepositional phrase modifies a verb. For example,

The cheetah runs after the antelope.
The team won without their captain.

Prepositions as Nominals

The church is before the hospital.
The school is adjacent the supermarket.

CLAUSES

INVERSIONS
Inversion in a sentence happens when the subject-verb order is reversed.
When the order is reversed, the verb comes before the subject.
To achieve inversion, we use:
Time adverbials, like
Never
Never before
Rarely
Scarcely (barely, hadly) …when/before
No sooner ….than

For example

Hardly had I begun to speak when she interrupted me.
No sooner had I arrived than they started to cry.

After exclamations with here and there, for example,
Here comes the teacher!
There goes the woman.
After adverbial expressions beginning with only and not only
Only after I met her did I realise I knew her.
Only when the bus stopped did he calm down.
To ask questions, for example,

Did you see her?

After so, neither, nor
Daniel has never been to China, neither do I.

More Examples in Sentences

Not until you grow up will you be allowed in here.
Under no circumstance can you smoke here.
Little does she realise how beautiful she is.

SUBSTITUTION

This is the replacement of a word, or group of words in a sentence in order to aviod repetion.
To do this, we use the fillers or proforms.

Proforms used in Substitution

There are different words and phrases used in substitution:

Neither
Less
Some
Many
Both
Little
So
Do
One
Ones etc

Examples in Sentences

I don’t like it, neither does Dorcas.
Salim has been to Eldoret, so have I.

SENTENCE CONNECTORS
A sentence connector links ideas from one sentence to the next.
Sentence connectors give paragraphs coherence.
The sentence connectors are used to:

Sequence ideas. The connectors used here are:

Firstly, thirdly, etc
In addition/ additionally
Furthermore
Also
Afterwards
Presently/at present
Next, last, finally, etc

Contrast ideas, for example,

However
On the contrary
In(by) comparison
In contrast
On the other hand, etc

State results, for example,

As a consequence
As a result
Therefore
Thus
Hence
Consequently

Compare ideas, for example,

Likewise
Similarly
Also

Give order of importance, for example,

Most significantly
More/most importantly
Above all
Primarily
Essentially

Give reason, for example,

The cause of
The reason for

Examples in Sentences

My brother works eight hours a day. However, he doesn’t earn much money.
This hotel has the best décor. Moreover, their chefs are lively.

The student failed to do the assignment. As a result, the teacher punished him.

The public refused to pay for the entry fee. Consequently, the show was cancelled.
The house had seven rooms, each with a bathroom. Additionally, there was a large swimming pool.

Exercise

Fill in the blanks with appropriate sentence connectors. Choose the connector from the ones given.

Similarly

On the contrary

Presently

However

Otherwise

Likewise

Therefore

Eventually

Afterwards

There are no red biros left. __________________ , there are black ones.
The white car has carried many passengers. _______________ , the white car has carried many passengers.
Clean the room first. _____________ , you can go out to play.
Let us work hard. _____________ we may receive bad grades.
I worked in Narok for ten years. _____________ , I work at home.
She loves John. ___________ , John loves someone else.
He has been looking for her. ________________ , he found her at the restaurant.
The final exams are coming soon. ____________ , it would be advisable to start revising.

GRAMMAR ANSWERS

RELATIVE PRONOUNS

Whose
Whom
Who
That/which
Who
Whom
Which
Whose
Which/That
Who
which
Which
Whom
Who

Which

ADJECTIVES

TYPICAL ENDINGS OF ADJECTIVES

beautiful
sleeveless
talkative
movable/immovable
careful
fashionable
attractive
contentious
papal
questionable

ADVERBS

POSITION OF ADVERBS IN SENTENCES

Exercise 1

Charles must also travel.
She was only kidding.
Did you both do the assignment?
The priest hardly sees movies.
He talks to them carefully.
The bag was hidden under the bed.
They left the school yesterday.
Samantha almost fell off the bike.
Her teacher will probably reward her hard work.
Daniel is definitely getting transferred this month.

Exercise 2

Haven’t lately him talked to

I haven’t talked to him lately.

I’ll him soon see

I’ll see him soon.

She help asked immediately for

She asked for help immediately.

You where now are?

Where are you now?

Loudly barks the dog

The dog barks loudly.

She secretly him met

She met him secretly.

Out sneaked house of they quietly out

They sneaked out of the house quietly.

Won hasn’t my lately club

My club hasn’t won lately.

Carefully plays piano the brother my

My brother plays the piano carefully.

Speaks well English Njeri

Njeri speaks English well.

TYPICAL ENDINGS OF ADVERBS

Happily
Smartly
Nearly
Hardly
Shortly
Quick
Eastwards
Least skillfully
Easily
Clockwise
Dramatically
Faster

SENTENCE CONNECTORS

However
Likewise/similarly
Afterwards
Otherwise
Presently
On the contrary
Eventually
Therefore

WRITING FOR FORM FOUR

PERSONAL WRITING

Recipes
A recipe is a set of steps that lead to a delicious food.
It is a set of directions that describes how to prepare a culinary dish.
With the recipe, one is unlikely to be involved in culinary disaster.
The common terms used in a recipe are:

Bake
Baste
Blend
Beat
Boil
Braise
Brine
Chop
Crush
Dip
Dissolve
Drawn
Pound
Mix
Stir
Spread

Format of a Recipe

Title your recipe. For example,

Fried Chicken Recipe

Ingredient List. It is advisable to list the ingredients in the order of their use. This helps the reader to keep track of the ingredients that have been used. Give the quantity of each ingredient. Examples:

4 whole chicken breasts

½ cup bread crumbs

How the meal is prepared is listed here. The steps should be easier to understand and follow. The steps are usually numbered.
List how many people to be served and what to serve with. For example,

Serve with …… or

Top with …..

Preparation time

Sample Recipe

RECIPE FOR COOKING WHITE RICE

Ingredients

1 cup of white rice

2 cups of water

½ teaspoon salt

I tablespoon oil

Preparation Time: 20 minutes

Preparation

1. Rinse the rice in a strainer.

2. Bring the water to a boil.

3. Add the rice to boiled water.

4. Stir in the rice, salt and oil and bring it back to a gentle simmer.

5. Start checking the rice around 18 minutes.

6. Turn off the heat when the rice is tender.

7. Remove the lid and fluff the rice.

Service

1. Serve when hot.

2. Serve with fried meat.

SOCIAL WRITING

E-Mails
Short for electronic
They are messages sent via a computer connected to internet.
Emails must be short and precise.

Email Address

An email address is what identifies an electronic post office box on a network where email can be sent.
Usually, there is no capitalization or spacing between the characters.

Component of Email Address

All email addresses have three parts:
Username;
@ symbol; and
The domain
Username is the unique name that you select. It can be your real name or nickname. Example: sumudawa
@ symbol separates the username from the domain. When you insert this symbol, your email program recognizes the character and sends the email to the domain name that follows it.
Domain is broken into parts: the mail server and the top-level domain.

The mail server is the server hosting the email account. There are such mail servers as yahoo, hotmail and gmail.

Examples of top-level domains include: com, net, org, edu, etc

Example of email address: sumudawa@yahoo.com

Email Format

Email consists of:

“FROM” Field. Write your email address.
Date .

“TO” Field. The recipient’s address is written here.

“Cc” Field. Add the email address of other people whose copy of the message should reach.
Subject. Write short but accurate subject header.
Attachments. Include the document that should be attached if required.

Salutation. Use proper salutation beginning with ‘dear’, etc.
Message body. Get your point across without rambling.

Leave-taking. Depending on your level of intimacy with the recipient, you can use phrases and words like:

Yours sincerely,
Yours faithfully,
Yours cordially,
Best,
Your loving daughter/son/mum/dad/sister/brother,
Respectfully,
Your student, etc

Signing. Write your full name.

Sample Email

FROM: kanayokanyo@gmail.com

DATE: 13^th June, 2015

TO: zimamoto@yahoo.com

Cc: mbwakali@hotmail.com; rosekate@email.com

SUBJECT: Chemistry/Physics Teaching Position

Dear Sir/Madam:

I am writing this email in response to your advertisement listed in The Standard Newspaper on 11^th June 2016 for the vacancy of teaching Chemistry and Physics that has arisen with your school.

I am a degree holder from Kilgoris University. I have taught for three years now. While teaching at Ungwana Secondary school, I developed my teaching skills.

I have a strong communication and interpersonal skills, and have the ability to make students understand my two subjects properly. I can help students with their decision making.

I desire to be part of the teaching team at Naikuma School where I could nourish the minds of young students. I will be highly obliged if you could go through my curriculum vitae attached herewith.

Yours faithfully,

Shuruti K. Hassan

FAX
Fax is short for facsimile.
Also known as telefax or telecopying.
It is the telephonic transmission of scanned printed material usually to a telephone number which is connected to a printer.

How it Works

To transmit the material, the process to follow include:

Scanning of the original material using a fax machine(telecopier).
Telecopier processes the content and converts it into a bitmap.
The content is then transmitted through the telephone system to the receiver .
The receiving telecopier interpretes the message and reconstruct it.

How to Write Notes and Fax Cover Sheet

Add a letter head to the top of the fax cover sheet. It can either be for a company or an individual. The letter head can include the name of the company or individual’s name, address, telephone number, fax number and email address.
Write “TO” followed by a colon some lines down. Fill in the name of the person who should receive the fax.
Write “COMPANY” and fill in the name of the company where you are sending the fax.
Write “FROM” and the colon on the next line. List the sender’s name.
List the date.
Write the recipient’s fax number.
Write “NUMBER OF PAGES”. Enter this number including the cover page to help the recipient make sure no page is missing.
Write “RE” followed by a colon. Enter the subject of what you are writing under notes.
Write “NOTES” and then a colon. Enter additional information here. Write the message.
An institution can design a facsimile Transmittal Sheet depending on their taste. Below is an example of a facsimile transmittal sheet.

FACSIMILE TRANSMITTAL SHEET

TO: ……………………………………………………………………….. FROM: ……………………………………………………………………..

COMPANY: ………………………………………………………….. DATE: ……………………………………………………..

FAX NUMBER: ……………………………………………………. PAGE TOTAL INCLUDING COVER: …………………………….

PHONE NUMBER: ………………………………………………

RE: _______________________________________________________________

URGENT		PLEASE COMMENT
PLEASE REPLY		PLEASE RECYCLE
FOR REVIEW

NOTES:

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

INSTRUCTIONS TO FAMILY AND FRIENDS
To give instructions is to let others know how to do something or reach somewhere.
Instructions when written, can take the form of letters, notes, e-mails, and many others. Be careful on which to use and which will work well with your recipient.
We give instructions to family and friends:
To help us do something in our absence.
On how to use a newly bought garget.
On how to prepare some meals.
On how to how to write their exams.
On how to be successful individuals. Etc.

What to Do

When writing instructions:

Use simple words. Save the verbatim words.
Use imperative form of sentences.
Give one instruction at a time. Numbered.

Here, we have a sample of note with instruction

INSTRUCTION ON WHAT TO DO WHILE I AM WAY

Dear Kish,

I have left for work. I will not come back as usually. After you wake up help do the following:

· Clean your bedroom.

· Wash the utensils.

· Mow the lawn.

· Cook your lunch.

· Go out and play after doing all the above.

· Get back to the house before 6.

· Close the gate until I come back.

I hope you will not forget any of the above. When mum comes back she will bring you the fruits you asked for.

Your loving mum,

Aoko

Exercise

Your cousin has bought a mobile phone but she doesn’t know how to type text message and send it. In a letter, give her instructions that will help her do that with ease.

PUBLIC WRITING

LETTERS OF INQUIRY
Sent to explore possibilities in employment, admission to college, etc when you are interested in working or learning, etc for a particular institution, but you do not know if an opening or vacancy exists.
A letter of inquiry is when you are approaching an organization/company/institution speculatively. This means you are making an approach without their having advertised or announced a vacancy.

How to Write a Letter of Inquiry

The steps that follow will help you write a good letter of inquiry:

Resolve to follow all the rules for business letter writing. Begin with your address, then the date, followed by the addressee’s address, moving on to the greeting(salutation) , and lastly, in regard to(written “RE:”)
Write about four paragraphs. The paragraphs can be divided into:

First Paragraph
Introduce yourself and concisely explain why you are writing.
Tell the recipient how you heard of the organization.
Let the recipient, if need be, know the result you will receive or received, and the school or college you are attending or attended.
Second Paragraph
Describe your interest in the organization.
Make it clear why you think you think you are qualified, for example for the job, or admission to the college, etc.
Third Paragraph
Talk about yourself. Highlight your relevant experience, achievements, and qualifications.
Include two or three skills that relate to the positions within.
Fourth Paragraph
Thank the recipient for their time.
Include your phone number or email address.
Note that you have included your CV. If admission to college, you may mention that you have included your academic certificate or any document.

Close your letter.

Write yours faithfully, if you do not know the name of the person.
Yours sincerely. If you know the person’s name, end the letter this way.
Add your signature. Sign your name.

Sample Letter of Enquiry

KANYE MIRACLE SCHOOL

P.O. BOX 333 – 22020

CHEM – KENYA

14^TH MAY, 2016

THE PRINCIPAL

JOSEM COLLEGE

P.O. BOX 3456 – 12340

KILGORIS

Dear Sir/Madam:

RE: NEXT INTAKE

I am a 2014 form four leaver from Kanye Miracle School. I received grade B- at KCSE. I am writing to express my interest in joining your college in September incase there is an intake. I have always heard a lot about your college. Last week, I saw the picture of your college in the newspaper and that attracted me more.

I am now thinking only about Josem College. It has become part of my dream and I would love to study my course there. I know the course I would like to pursue is one of the numerous courses offered there. I would like to study Journalism. I received grade B+ IN English and Kiswahili and I hope that is enough to qualify me for the course of my childhood dreams.

While in high school, I used to be a member of journalism club. It is I who could write all the news to be read on Fridays by fellow club members. I was also involved in broadcasting during the parents’ day and through that my confidence was boosted. I no longer suffer from anxiety when speaking before a large group.

Thank you for your time you have you have taken to consider this letter of inquiry. Would you please contact me on 07000000 when there will be next intake? Attached are my documents.

Yours Faithfully,

[sign]

Salome Mtakatifu

LETTERS OF REQUEST
Written to request a company/firm/institution to provide complete information regarding a product/service/course, etc.
One expresses their interest towards the course/product, etc in this letter.
The following points will help in writing an effective letter of request:
Clearly state the reason of seeking detailed information.
Use formal tone when writing.
Be polite.
Recheck for misspellings.

Sample Letter of Request

Nyamirogi Secondary School,

P.O. Box 111—40020,

MLANGO – KENYA.

24^th April, 2015

The Principal,

Nyamoro College,

P.O. Box 222 – 34200,

DIRISHA – KENYA.

Dear Mr. Bacuna:

RE: INFORMATION ABOUT YOUR COLLEGE

I am a parent of one of the students who received admission letters from your college. He is very much interested in joining the college.

We have read your admission letter and are very much interested in getting admission in your college. I need, however, the answers to the following questions before I could join the college:

· Is fee paid in installment or paid at once?

· Can accommodation be offered in college?

· Other than the courses offered, are there non academic ones like driving?

I would be glad to receive the answers to these questions. Could you please contact me on dennism@yahoo.com or 0797878787?

Yours Faithfully,

[sign]

Dennis Mnyweso

STUDY WRITING

REVIEWS
A review of a novel, play, short story or even a poem is written to give the reader a concise summary of its content. This includes relevant description of the topic as well as its overall message.

How to Write A Book Review

The steps below are normally followed when reviewing a book (say a novel):

Describe what the novel is about in a couple of sentences. No spoilers should be given here.
Discuss what in particular you liked about the book. Your thoughts and feelings about the novel are the main focus when doing this. The questions suggested below when answered will help you to a great extent:
Who was your favourite character? Why?
Did the characters feel real to you?
Did the story keep you guessing what to happen next, and next?
Which part of the book was your favourite? Why?
Did the novel make you laugh, smile, or cry?
Mention what you disliked about the novel. Discuss why you think it didn’t work for you. Some questions to help you are:
Was the ending frustrating?
Was the story scary for your feeling?
Summarize some of your thoughts on the novel, suggesting the type of reader you would recommend the novel for. For example would you recommend it for young readers, fans of crime, high school students, etc.
At times, you can rate the novel, for example a mark out of ten, etc.

Sample Book Review Template

Book Review

Picture of the book here

Title:

Author:

Publisher:

Reviewer:

The novel is about a baby girl who is the source of the river. She becomes the first born girl in a family full of boys. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

EXPOSITORY ESSAYS

Exposition is explanatory communication, whether in speech or writing.
An expository essay is an organized piece of prose which explains a specific topic or set of ideas to a defined audience.
Expository essays provide information and analysis.

Elements of Expository Essays

A clear thesis or controlling idea that establishes and sustains your focus.
An opening paragraph that introduces the thesis.
Body paragraphs (4 0r 5) that use specific evidence to illustrate your informative or analytic points.
Smooth transitions that connect the ideas of adjoining paragraphs in specific, interesting ways.
A conclusion that emphasizes your central idea without being repetitive.

QUESTIONNAIRES
It is a research instrument containing several questions and other prompts for the purpose of gathering information from the respondents.
The questions are aimed at collecting facts or opinions about something.

Outline and Format of the Questionnaire

FORMAT	ELEMENTS
Introduction	· Title of the study · Purpose of the study · Duration of the survey · Guarantee of confidentiality · Brief information about the organization · If any, incentive Information
Demographic Data	· Respondent’s name(could be optional) · Age, gender, religion, marital status, etc.
Questions	· Closed-ended questions answerable by Yes/No first. This is for faster response rate. · Questions arranged from general to specific. · Sensitive questions at the end. · Group related questions together. · Always number questions. · The instructions on how questions are answered placed before the questions. · Response questions placed vertically except for tabulated options.
End	· Expression of gratitude to the respondent for attempting questions e.g. “Thank You” · Information on knowing the outcome of the survey.

Sample Questionnaire

THE ALL TIME HOTEL

(email: alltme@gmail.com, P.O. Box 43 – Nairobi Kenya)

CUSTOMER SATISFACTION ON THE ALL TIME HOTEL QUESTIONNAIRE

I. INTRODUCTION

Dear Esteemed Customer,

We are dedicated to improving the customer satisfaction. Through answering questions in this questionnaire survey, we will be able to analyse the data that will help us enhance our services and meeting your needs.

Your response will only be used for survey purposes and your confidentiality is highly guaranteed.

After you answer all the questions, you will be presented meals of your taste as a token of our good will. We thank you in advance for your time.

II. QUESTIONS

Instructions:

Please indicate your level of agreement or disagreement with each of these statements regarding our hotel. TICK in the box of your answer.

1. How many times do you visit The All Time Hotel per month?

___________________________________________________________________________

2. Do you visit The All Time Hotel with Family or Friends?

Yes

3. For question (3) answer with:

Agree

Strongly Agree

Neutrally agree

Disagree

Strongly Disagree

(a) The hotel is accessibly located.

____________________________________________________

(b) Hotel hours are convenient for my dining needs.

____________________________________________________

(c) Advertised meals are in stock.

____________________________________________________

(d) A good selection of meals was available.

_____________________________________________________

(e) The meals sold are an equal value for the money.

_____________________________________________________

(f) Meals sold here are of the highest quality.

_____________________________________________________

(g) The hotel has the lowest prices in the estate.

_____________________________________________________

(h) The hotel atmosphere and décor are appealing.

______________________________________________________

III. DEMOGRAPHIC DATA

Name

(optional): ______________________________________________________

Age: ________________________

Gender: ______________________

Number of Family Members: (Tick appropriate)

	1-3
	4-6
	7-9
	More than 10

Phone (optional): ____________________________________

IV. Thank you for sharing your feelings and thoughts with The All Time. Enjoy dining at the best Hotel in town!

INSTITUTIONAL WRITING

CURRICULUM VITAE
This is a written overview of a person’s experience as well as their qualifications.
It brings out a person’s life accomplishments, especially those related to academic realm.
Try to present all the relevant information that you can.
The CV need to reflect your abilities within your discipline.

Sample Curriculum Vitae

DON MICHAEL OTIENO’S CURRICULUM VITAE

Personal Details

Date of Birth: 8^th April, 1989

Sex: Male

Nationality: Kenyan

Religion: Christian

Marital Status: Married

ID Number: 28724770

Address: 924-40400 Suna-Migori

Email: duncanomondi227@gmail.com

Phone Number: 0716602808 or 0764602808

Languages: English and Kiswahili

Personal Profile

A highly motivated, enthusiastic and dedicated teacher of English who has been praised for hard work and perseverance. Committed to creating classroom atmosphere that stimulates and encourage learners. Has the passion to work under minimum or no supervision at all.

Educational Background

YEAR	INSTITUTION	QUALIFICATION
2011-2013	Utumishi University	Bachelors of Education (First class honors)
2005-2008	Kafira Secondary School	KCSE {52 Points(C+)}
1996-2004	Kafira Primary School	KCPE(304 Marks)

Work Experience

FROM-TO	INSTITUTION	RESPONSIBILITIES
September 2015-December 2015	Joy Girls’ Secondary	1. Guiding candidate class in revision. 2. Offering guidance and counseling to my class. 3. Coaching students in soccer.
June 2015-August 2015	Kisimani Secondary School	1. Chairing guidance and counseling meetings. 2. Coaching students in soccer and volleyball. 3. In charge of discipline. 4. Chairing languages department’s meetings.
January 2014-June 2015	Right There Muslim Girls’	1. Guiding and counseling students. 2. Training the students both in the classroom and in the field. 3. Preparing programmes for various activites held at the school. 4. Heading languages department.

Achievements

YEAR	INSTITUTION	ACHIEVEMENT
2014-2015	Right There Muslim Girls’	1. Appointed head of departments: Languages and Games. 2. Appointed member of the disciplinary committee. 3. Patron of clubs(Debate and Journalism) 4. Class teacher.
	Right There Muslim Girls’	KCSE 2014: · ENGLISH MEAN SCORE: 5.667 up from 3.5. · HISTORY MEAN SCORE: 7.6
2015	Kisimani Secondary School	· Head of both Games and Languages Departments. · Form 2 class teacher. · Acting as Deputy Principla.
2015	Joy Girls’ Secondary	· Assistant Head of Department, Games. · Class teacher
2015		Written manuscripts in areas such as: · Grammar in English. · Oral Skills in English.

SKILLS

· Strong personal skills.

· Problem solving skills.

Hobbies and Interests

· Reading novels, journals and plays.

· Playing soccer and volleyball.

· Writing manuscripts.

Referees

NAME	POSITION	INSTITUTION	PHONE NUMBER
Mr. Mfupi Mbilikimo	Head of English Department	Joy Girls’ Secondary	0711223344
Mr. Issa Abdikadir	Deputy Principal	Right There Muslim Girls’	0722334455
Mr. Kimoke M.	English Department	Utumishi University	0733445566

SPEECHES
Speech delivery requires adequate preparation. Writing itself is part of that preparation.
To write a good speech:
Select a topic that you enjoy talking about.
Compose your specific purpose statement.
Compose your Thesis statement or central idea. This is the most important part of your speech.
writing your thesis statement is a four step process:
choose your topic
Determine your general purpose. For example, to persuade, entertain, educate, etc.
Write your specific purpose statement. This is what the speaker wants to accomplish.
Tie it all together by composing a clear concise thesis statement.

Sample Speech

KCSE TARGET

“The principal, deputy principal, teachers, and my fellow students, good morning? I am grateful for being offered this rare chance to address this large crowd. Thank you for this great opportunity. Today I want to particularly address form fours who are only 3 months away from reaping the hard work.

Dear candidates, where are you going to be in three months? What will you be doing from the time you wake up to day fall each day? What will you achieve when KCSE Results are announced? In other words, what is your target? Some of you might be thinking that three months is a lot of time to first waste and only revise with one week left. They might be thinking it is too early to revise. Let me assure you that it is high time you decide on doubling your effort.

In fact, with my one year experience since I left this school, I can suggest you two alternatives. Either you think about your future after form four – now! – or you leave this a frustrated individual, and regret later in life. Not encouraging at all to depend completely on your parents. I like the proverb: You reap what you sow. Remember no one reaps beans when he plants potato. Only if you work hard that work of your hands will handsomely be rewarded.

[Paragraph]

According to my deepest conviction, happy person is the person who always brings his own sunshine, wherever he goes and whatever the weather. Hope to see these sparks in you in you next year March when the results will be announced. Thanking for you listening to me. ”

BUILDING SENTENCE SKILLS AND PARAGRAPHING

PARAPHRASING

To paraphrase simply means “put in your own words.”
It is one’s own interpretation of essential information and ideas expressed by someone else, presented in a new form.
It is a more detailed restatement than a summary, which focuses concisely on a single main idea.

Steps to Effective Paraphrasing

Reread the original passage until you understand its full meaning.
Set the original aside, and write your paraphrase on a note book.
Jot down a few words below your paraphrase to remind you later how you imagine using this material.
Check your version with the original to make sure that yours accurately expresses all the essential information in a new form.
Use quotation marks to identify any unique term or phraseology you have borrowed exactly from the source.

CREATIVE WRITING

BIOGRAPHIES

Kim Kardashian

Born: 21 October 1980

Birthplace: Los Angeles, California

Best known as: The alpha-sister star of Keeping Up With the Kardashians

Kimberly Kardashian is a Los Angeles socialite, businesswoman and first among equals on the long-running reality TV show Keeping Up With the Kardashians. Kim Kardashian first came to wide public attention through her friendship with socialite Paris Hilton; Kim is the daughter of attorney Robert Kardashian (1944-2003), who became famous in 1994 when his friend and client O.J. Simpson was arrested and tried for murder. Kim Kardashian became one of Paris Hilton’s party pals and then in 2007 boosted her profile by taking legal action to prevent the distribution of a naughty home video she had made with then-boyfriend Ray J (born William Ray Norwood, Jr., the brother of singer Brandy). The tape was widely distributed on the Internet, despite (or because of) Kardashian’s attempts to quash it, and she was launched into Hilton-like celebrity. That led to the 2007 launch of the TV reality show Keeping Up With the Kardashians, which starred Kim and her sisters Kourtney and Khloe and made their extended family synonymous with celebrity for its own sake. Kim appeared on Dancing With the Stars (2008) and made various appearances on other TV shows. She and her sisters opened a chain of dress boutiques called Dash, and together they published a memoir, Kardashian Konfidential, in 2010. Married at one time to music producer Damon Thomas (2000-04), Kim Kardashian was later romantically linked to a number of male celebrities, including Jessica Simpson‘s ex-husband Nick Lachey and Heisman Trophy winner Reggie Bush. She married NBA basketball player Kris Humphries in August of 2011, but filed for divorce 72 days later, citing “irreconcilable differences.” (The divorce became final on June 3, 2013.) She became pregnant by the rapper Kanye West in 2012; their daughter, named North West, was born on 15 June 2013. Kardashian and West were married in Florence, Italy on 24 May 2014, and their second child, a son named Saint, was born on 5 December 2015. Kim Kardashian published a 352-page book of selfies, titled Selfish, in 2015.

READING SKILLS

Reasons for using a dictionary

Finding words quickly

Finding the right meaning of an English word

Finding the right spelling

The following rules will help you spell words correctly.

Rule 1: “I before E except after C”;

Rule 2: “Dropping Final E”

Rule 3: “Dropping Final Y”

Rule 4: “Doubling Final Consonants”

PUNCTUATION

CAPITALIZATION

Capitalization Rules

FINAL PUNCTUATION MARKS

The Period, Full Stop or Point

Mark the end of a sentence which is not a question or an exclamation

Examples

Indicate an abbreviation

Examples

Period after a single word

Examples

Periods in numbers

Examples

The Exclamation Mark

Examples

Examples

The Question Mark

Examples

Examples

The Comma

Use comma to separate phrases, words, or clauses in lists

Ø A series of independent clauses (sentences)

Example

Ø A series of nouns

Examples

Ø A series of adjectives

Examples

Ø A series of verbs

Examples

Ø A series of phrases

Examples

More Uses

1. Enclosing details

Examples

2. Participial phrases

Examples

3. Tag questions

Examples

How to Take Notes

Poem Writing Tips

Elements of Imaginative Compositions

1) SURVEY

2) QUESTION

3) READ

4) RECITE

5) REVIEW

Why Critical Reading?

Mother to Son by Langston Hughes

Ø Now try interpreting the message in the poem that follow.

SEE IT THROUGH by Edgar Guest

EXPOSITORY ESSAYS

Steps to Effective Paraphrasing

Kim Kardashian

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