101|3. ENGLISH PAPER 3.

*WRITING  ESSAYS BASED ON THE SET TEXT

 

1. Interpreting the question
2. Making an outline of your points
3. introducing your essay
4. Writing the body
5. Concluding your essay
6. The Dos and Dontsin essay writing.
7. Episodes in A Doll’s House
8. Questions for discussions.

 

PREAMBLE

Essays on set text are questions that add up to 40 marks in paper three.

Students have met a lot of challenges scoring these marks.

Among the reasons that account for this is poor/inadequate reading of the set books. Without a thorough grasp of the thematic concerns of the set books, you will score less marks. This is because you need a lot of details in your discussion to score mark. Obviously, you cannot get these details without reading the set books at least six times.

 

Secondly, our attitude towards writing on one hand and paper three on the other also puts the kibosh to our great performance here. We must therefore love writing and be positive.

 

Lastly, most students don’t understand the writing techniques required here.

It is in lieu of this that we have organized this lesson to take you through essay writing skills.

 

 

 

1.Interpretation of the question

 

In order to write a good essay, you must first understand what the statement means. Interpretation of the question is pivotal here. You will have failed once you misinterpret the given statement.

➡️The current KCSE setting trends are characterized by questions which encompass two sides. The action(virtue or vice) and the reaction( reward or punishment).

➡️When responding to KCSE essay questions in A Doll’s House and or any other text, always try to point out the *keywords* by *underlining* them. This will help you to have the correct interpretation of the question. Once this is done, you will find writing the essay a walk in the park.

➡️Since the question is two sided, the answer should also bring out the two sides fully.

For instance,

*“A selfish individual who only cares about his reputation causes pain to himself and others. Basing your illustrations on Henrik Ibsen’s A Doll’s House; write an essay to validate this statement.”*

While responding to the question above, you ought to first underline the key words; *selfish* and  *pain* then identify selfish individuals and how they only careabout their reputation* Then, you should illustrate *how this selfishness causes pain to the said individual and others.*

➡️ For a candidate to interpret the question well s/he must have a wide range of vocabulary without which the task will be tedious. This will help in writing the introduction/paraphrasing the statement.

2.Making an outline of your points

Planning is key in all our undertakings for it will determine the end results. Therefore, you should master the art of planning as it sets precedence for a good essay. If you get it right from the onset, that is interpretation and planning, you are on the way to great performance.

🔷Come up with at least four characters that will support your argument, this will enable you to plan your essay. This stage helps you come up with complete topic sentences.

In reference to our question on “A selfish individual who only cares about his reputation…, you may sketch down something like this👇🏻 as your outline/plan on the question paper.

a)Helmer doesn’t listen and understand Nora’s sacrifice/predicament

1. b) Krogstad is mean towards Nora
2. c) Helmer’s selfishness towards Krogstad

d)Mrs Linde’s selfishness towards Krogstad.

You should go a head and brainstorm on the details for each point before you begin writing your essay.

 

3.Introducing your essay.

🖊️The introduction falls on the first paragraph.

🖊️It earns you 2 marks.

🖊️It should address both sides of the question.

🖊️Should be drawn from within the text.

When writing your introduction you ought to take note of the following;

 🖋️Demonstrate your understanding of the question (What are you going to discuss?)

*what to avoid*

 🖋️Do NOT define terms

 🖋️Do not rewrite any words or phrase in the question; instead paraphrase (use your own words e.g. if the questions says materialism you should use the word greed. Or when the question says sacrifice you may use the word selflessness in your introduction)

*What an introduction should be*

🖊️Should be brief(not  more than 4 lines)

🖊️Should have:

➡️Name of the text

➡️Outline at least 2 points

*Types of introductions*

 

You can use any of the following ways to write your introduction.

 

1. *Contextualized introduction* which involves using examples from the text.

 

For example

Helmer’s meanness cause Nora so much stress to the extent that she decides to sever a marriage that she had so much hope in.

 

2. *General introduction*

*For example*

Most citizens suffer when the leaders they voted for forget about their needs and focus on working for their own stomachs. This is brought out clearly In Henrik Ibsen’sA Doll’s House.

 

3. *A paraphrasing*

For example

Focusing on your own individual interest at the expense of others causes so much suffering not only to himself but also others.

 

4. *Listing the points that the essay is going to address*

For example

Krogstad, Helmer and Mrs Linde are so mean in the text that they cause a lot of anxiety and torture to Nora, Mrs Linde and themselves as discussed below.

 

 

 

 

4.THE BODY OF YOUR ESSAY.

With the outline in mind, consider getting details that will buffer your topic sentence.

The body should include the following:

*The topic sentence(situation)*

*Background information*

*Action*

*Reaction*

*clincher sentence*

 

For example

*Betrayal leads to disintegration of relationships.*Discuss the validity of this statement with illustrations from A Doll’s House by Henrik Ibsen.

 

You need to get details of the following in your paragraphs :

✔Identify who betrays the other

✔Describe the relationships between the two friends or couple

✔Give finer background details on the circumstances/ reason(s) that led to the betrayal.

✔Identify the *action* of the traitor/actual betrayal

✔The *reaction*/ result of the betrayal.

✔ The clincher sentence.

 

In this case, breakage of/ strain in relationships. ( Betrayal being a vice can only lead to distraction/suffering)

That is the direction we should take when writing essays based on set texts.

 

*For example*

 

*Helmer betrays Nora her husband who she believes loves us so much.* *She tells Dr Rank how devotedly, how inexpressively deeply Torvald loves her and that he would never for a moment hesitate to give his life for her.* *Following Helmers diagnosis of fatigue by doctors and the need for him to go to Italy to rest as a form of treatment, Nora decides to sacrifice to help him get well.* *She takes a loan of 250 pounds without her husband’s consent and against societal norms.* *She has to forge her dad’s signature to get this money.* *Indeed, she feels proud of her deed telling Mrs Linde that her husband has never been sick since then saying that he has been as sound as a bell.* *However, upon realizing the secret, Helmer disowns her criticizing her for being immoral and not mother enough to instill morals in their children.* *He even tells her things will not be alright going forward between them.* *Nora feels so disappointed and decides to leave their marriage.* *Helmer is left begging for forgiveness in vain*. *It’s catastrophic to betray your spouse*.

This is a complete paragraph since it identifies the idea(betrayal), goes ahead to give background details about the relationship between the couple, circumstances surrounding the betrayal, the actual action of betrayal, the reaction and the clincher that summarizes the paragraph.

*Situation*: (The point/betrayal)Topic sentence 1

*Supporting sentences*

• *Background*: Sentences 2, 3 4 and 5 provide background information on the betrayal.
• *Action*:Sentences 7 and 8
• *Reaction*: 9 & 10

* Clincher sentence* 11.

 

Example 2

*“Self sacrifice must be rewarded. Citing illustrations from Henrik Ibsen’s A Doll’s House; write an essay to validate this statement.”*

*Situation* : Nora’s sacrifice to save her husband is rewarded.

*Background* : When they get married, Torvald leaves his office work because there is no prospect of promotion. With a view of providing for his family, he works early and late. In the process he overworks himself and falls dreadfully ill. The doctors tell Nora his wife that the only remedy is for him to take a rest in the south (Italy). The trip would cost a tremendous amount of money(250 pounds). Torvald is not willing to borrow. Nora’s cries and entreaties doesn’t change his decision. To make matters worse, he would not accept help from a woman.

 

*Action* : Nora is forced to borrow 250 pounds from Nils Krogstad and forge a name because a woman is not allowed to borrow without her husband’s consent. She takes Torvald to Italy. They stay there for a year.

 

*Reaction/ outcome /Values/ reward*

Outcome: Torvald comes back from the trip and he is as sound as a bell.

Clincher sentence: They stay happily without anxiety.

 

It should be written in continuous prose.

 

5.CONCLUSION.

The conclusion should be done in the last paragraph.

You can do this by:

• Doing a recap of your points Summary of your points
• Using a relevant proverb
• Or giving a comment

*Note*

Avoid introducing new points here*

 

 

Examples

In conclusion, for us to enjoy our relationships, we must never disappoint. OR

Helmer, Mr Linde, Krogstad and Dr Rank suffer because of betrayal.

 

Example 2

In conclusion, Nora and Mrs Linde find joy in denying themselves for the sake of others.

 

6.*The DOS AND DONT’S IN WRITING AN ESSAY BASED ON A SET BOOK*

 

*THE DOS*

1. Do interpret the question correctly.
2. Do always start discussing your points with a topic sentence based on characters, events/activities and episodes from the directed text.
3. Do always write your paragraphs in a logical and coherent manner. Tie your points together in a paragraph.
4. Do paraphrase or quite your illustrations from the given text. Here, you pick activities related to the question from the text in the exact way they appear.
5. Do mention one or two examples of content points in your introduction.
6. Do write your essay in well structured and connected paragraphs.
7. Do write your introduction as the first paragraph of your essay.
8. Do capture the two sides of the question by interpreting the key terms in the question, for example, correctly interpret the terms betrayal and mistrust or disintegration by using synonyms or a paraphrase if the meaning.
9. Do write the name of the text and author in the introduction.
10. Do write your essay in continuous prose (prose form)

 

*THE DONT’S*

1. Do not write your essay in point form.
2. Do not define key terms from the question but rather interpret the question.
3. Do not use obscene or vulgar /impolite language
4. Do not repeat writing the question or any part of it as it is.
5. Do not underline your topic sentence.
6. Do not narrate events as they are in the book.
7. Do not introduce a new point or idea in the conclusion.
8. Do not exceed the required number of words which is usually 450 words.
9. Do not get personal or sentimental
10. Do not write headings and subheadings in your essay.
11. Do not include irrelevant or out of context information in your essay.

 

Now keenly go through the following essay and take note of the depth of details you are required to give as illustrations in your paragraphs.

 

 

*SAMPLE ESSAY*

*Self sacrifice must be rewarded. Citing illustrations from Henrik Ibsen’s A Doll’s House, write an essay to validate this claim with close reference to female characters.*

 

In Henrik Ibsen’s A Doll’s House, women are portrayed as being *selfless.* They give up their valuable time, comfort and possessions in order to help other people. This does not go *unrequitted.* An example would be Anne, the nanny, who half-heartedly leaves her own child in order to help Nora and her three little children. By so doing, she gets an income and a good place to live.

Nora borrows 250 pounds from Nils Krogstadin order to save her ailing husband’s life (topic sentence). When they get married, Torvald Helmer leaves his job because there is no prospect of a promotion. He then works early and late to provide for his family and soon falls dreadfully ill because of overwork (ill 1). The doctors tell Nora that the only thing that could save her husband’s life is to live in the south (ill 2). Nora then makes a tremendous sacrifice when she borrows a huge amount of money without her husband’s consent. Since her husband would not allow her to borrow the money, she takes this risk for the sake of love. (ill 3) After a year of staying in Italy, Torvald is as sound as a bell and has never be ill since then. Indeed self sacrifice is always rewarded (closing statement).

 

Nora also sacrifices for the sake of her three little children (topic sentence). At the end when Helmer decides that Nora is not worthy even for her little children, she decides to leaves the home fearing she might corrupt her children. Due to societal expectation, she is convinced that she is a corrupt person as a result of the lies that she has had to exhibit in her marriage (ill 1). She has lied about little things like eating macaroons to serious issues like borrowing money from Krogstad and lying to her husband that she got it from her father (ill 2). Helmer argues that such an atmosphere of lies infects and poisons the whole life of a home thus she chooses to leave. (ill 3). Leaving her children is an incredible act of self sacrifice. Ultimately she achieves her independence from a suffocating male-dominated society and thus moves out to try and understand her role in society (closing statement).

 

Mrs Linde also plays a sacrificial role in the lives of her mother and siblings (topic sentence). She abandons Nils Krogstad, the man she loves, and marries a rich man who she does not love for the sake of her family (ill 1). Her mother is bedridden and helpless and her bothers depend on her so she has no choice but to leave her penniless love-Krogstad and marry a man of means (ill 2). She is glad that she makes the end of her mother’s life almost free from care. She is also proud that her brothers are now fully grown and independent (ill 3). These sacrifices made for her family qualifies her selflessness and the fact that her mother is afforded good care and her brothers are now fully grown is a reward to Mrs. Linde (closing statement).

 

Lastly, Anne is also portrayed as a selfless woman who sacrifices her happiness for the sake of Nora and her children (topic sentence). To do this, Anne leaves her own child among strangers (ill 1). Nora wonders how she could leave her child but Anne indicates that she was obliged to if she wanted to be Nora’s nurse since Nora had no mother and indeed Nora confesses that indeed Anne was a good mother to her when she was little (ill 2). As a result, Anne gets a salary and a good place to live (closing statement.

 

In conclusion, it is true to say that most women are selfless and thus play sacrificial roles in the societies in which they live. There acts never go unrewarded as seen in A Doll’s House.

 

 

 

 

7.Episodes in A Doll’s House.

How to identify episodes in a text

1. a) What is the event?
2. b) Who are the characters involved?
3. c) What actions or activities are they involved in?
4. d) How do the characters react to those events?
5. e) What is the moral lesson in that episode?

 

ACT 1

Preparation for Christmas 1-9

Nora’s reunion with Mrslinde 9-23

Krogstad’s intention of seeing Helmer 23-24

Moral corruption 24-28

Helmer to give Mrs Linde a job 28-31

The blackmail 31-42

Nora’s effort to have Krogstad retained 42-48

 

ACT 2

Nora’s anxious mood 49-51

The misunderstanding 51-56

Nora begs Helmer again 56-62

Dr. Rank’s confessions 62-71

Letter to Helmer 71-77

Nora’s secret 77-79

Helmer’s mailbox 79-82

The crazy dance 82-84

 

ACT 3

Mrs. Linde &Krogstad’s second chance 85-91

The borrowed money 91-94

Romantic Helmer 94-96

After the ball 96-100

Helmer goes for his letters 100-102

Nora’s decision 102-120

 

8.ESSAY QUESTIONS FOR REVISION

1) Women play key roles in the society but more often than not their roles are never recognized.Using illustrations from “A Doll’s House,” support this assertion.

2)The playwright of ADoll’s House communicates that a formed perception about someone is normally too far from reality. Use appropriate illustrations to support this.

3)Many homes are built on lies. Support this using Helmer’s home as presented in A Doll’s House.

4)Choices have consequences. Support this with illustrations from A Doll’s House.

5)Circumstances and situations surrounding an individual have a great effect on the individual’s character. Using Nora and Krogstad in ADoll’s House, support this assertion.

6)Selflessness should have limits, drawing illustrations from the play A Doll’s House, write an essay showing to what extent you agree with this assertion.

7)One needs friends to support him or her in times of need. Support this with illustrations from Henrik Ibsen’s ADoll’s House.

8)Using illustrations from the play, A Doll’s House by Henrik Ibsen, show how lies and deceit are exposed in the play

9)”Money is the source of all evil.“Support this statement with illustrations from the play, A Doll’s House byHenrik Ibsen.

10)”Never judge a book by its cover.” Using illustrations from the play, A Doll’s House by Henrik Ibsen,support this statement.

12)’Women are portrayed as loving and self-sacrificing in Henrik Ibsen’s A Doll’s House,’ Write an essay toshow the truth of this statement.

12)Write an essay to show that appearances can be misleading. Draw your illustrations from Henrik Ibsen’s ADoll’s House.

13)Drawing illustrations from Henrik Ibsen’s A Doll’s House, write an essay to justify the statement: All her life, Norah has been treated like a doll to be petted and shown off.

14)Relationships are bound to disintegrate where one party feels superior,’ Using examples from Henrik Ibsen’s A Doll’s House, justify this statement.

15)Preserving the respect of the community preoccupies the characters in Henrik Ibsen’s A Doll’s House. Drawing illustrations from the text, write an essay to show the truth of this statement.

16)Women are generally loving and self-sacrificing. Validate this statement basing your illustrations from Henrik Ibsen’s A Doll’s House.

 

FORM TWO ENGLISH NOTES

LISTENING AND SPEAKING FOR FORM TWO

PRONUNCIATION

STRESS

Not all syllables in a word are given equal emphasis. By the same token, not all words in a sentence are said with equal length.

The relative emphasis that may be given to certain syllables in a word, or certain words in a sentence is what we refer to as stress.

You say a syllable or a word is stressed when it is said louder or longer than the rest.

Stress is studied in two levels:

• Word level; and
• Sentence level.

Stress at the Word Level

A part of a certain word when said louder or longer then it is stressed.

Rules of Word Stress

1. For two-syllable nouns and adjectives, stress the first, for example

Cloudy  carton    table

2. For verbs with two syllables and prepositions, emphasize the second syllable, for example
3. Words with three syllables.

• Those ending in –er, -ly, emphasis put on the first syllable, for example,
• Stress the first, for those ending in consonants and in –y, for example,
• Stress the last syllable if the word ends in –ee, -ese, -eer, -ique, -ette, for example,
• Look at the ones with the suffixes below, where stress is placed on the second,

-ary: library

Cial: judicial, commercial

-cian: musician, clinician

-tal : capital, recital

Stress is important in studying the heteronyms. A pair, or group of words is referred to as heteronym when those words are spelled the same way but have different pronunciation and meaning. We have two main categories of heteronyms:

• Noun- verb pairs; and
• Verb -and-adjective pairs.

We stress the first syllable if noun and the second if verb.

Examples of noun-and-verb pairs are included in the table below:

Noun	Verb	Noun	Verb
Abuse		Graduate
Record		Cement
Convert		Wind
Abuse		Sin
Contest		Produce
Duplicate		Excuse
Polish		Insult
Rebel		Permit

 

In sentences;

• Many factories produce the produce we import.
• Allan became a convert after deciding to convert to christianity.

Sentence Stress

Sentence stress is accent on certain words within a sentence.

Most sentences have two basic word types:

• Content words which are the key words carrying the sense or meaning- message.

 

• Structure words which just make the sentence grammatically correct. They give the sentence its structure.

 

Look at the sentence below:

Buy milk feeling tired.

Though the sentence is incomplete, you will probably understand the message in it. The four words are the content words. Verbs, nouns, adjectives, are content words.

You can add words to the sentence to have something like:

Will you buy me milk since I am feeling tired?

The words: will, you, me, since, I, are just meant to make the sentence correct grammatically. They can also be stressed to bring the intended meaning.

Now let’s study the sentence below:

Joan doesn’t think Akinyi stole my green skirt.

Each word in the sentence can be stressed to bring the meaning as illustrated in the table.

Sentence	Meaning
Joan doesn’t think Akinyi stole my green skirt.	She doesn’t think that, but someone else does.
Joan doesn’t think Akinyi stole my green skirt.	It is not true that Joan thinks that.
Joan doesn’t thinkAkinyi stole my green skirt.	Joan doesn’t think that, she knows that.
Joan doesn’t think Akinyi stole my green skirt.	Not Akinyi, but someone else. Probably Njuguna or Adhiambo.
Joan doesn’t think Akinyistole my green skirt.	Joan thinks Akinyi did something to the green skirt, may be washed it.
Joan doesn’t think Akinyi stole my green skirt.	Joan thinks Akinyi stole someone else’s green skirt, but not mine.
Joan doesn’t think Akinyi stole my green skirt.	She thinks Akinyi stole my red skirt which is also missing.
Joan doesn’t think Akinyi stole my green skirt.	Joan thinks Akinyi stole my green shirt. She mispronounced the word.

 

Exercise 1

 

1. The words that follow can be nouns or verbs dependingon the stressed syllable. Use each as both the verb and noun in a single sentence.

 

• Cement
• Address
• Permit
• Content

2. Underline the part of the word in boldface you will stress in each of the following sentences.

• The boy has been asked to sert the de.sert.
• My handsome cortwilles.cort me to the dance.
• After updating my sume, I will re.sume my job search.
• They have to testin the annual Math con.test.
• If you vict me, I will remain a con.vict for 5 years.

Exercise 2

Each word in the sentences below can be stressed to bring the meaning. What will be the meaning when each word is stressed?

• I love your sister’s handwriting.
• You came late today.

 

 

INTONATION

• It is the rise and fall of voice in speaking.
• Intonation is crucial for communication.
• In English there are basically two kinds of intonation: rising and
• We can use arrows to show the intanotion – whether rising or falling. ↘ represents falling intonation while ↗ represents the rising one.

Falling Intonation

• Falling intonation is when we lower our voice at the end of a sentence.
• This usually happens in:
• Statements, for example,
• I like↘
• It is nice working with ↘
• She travelled to↘
• W/H Questions
• What is your ↘name?
• Where do you ↘live?
• How old are↘ you?
• Who is this young↘ man?
• Commands
• Get out ↘
• Give me the ↘
• Close your ↘
• Exclamatory sentences e.g.
• What a wonderful ↘present!
• How ↘nice of you

 

Rising intonation

• When we lower our voice.
• Used in:
• General Questionsg.

Do you visit them↗ often?

Have you seen ↗her?

Are you ready to ↗start?

Could you give me a↗ pen, please?

• Alternative questionsg.

Do you want ↗coffee or ↘tea?

Does he speak↗ Kiswahili or ↘English?

• Before tag questionsg.

This is a beautiful ↘place, ↗isn’t it?

She knows↘ him,↗ doesn’t she?

• Enumeratingg.

↗One, ↗two,↗ three, ↗four,↘ five.

She bought ↗bread, ↗cheese, ↗oranges, and ↘apples.

Exercise

Using an arrow, determine whether rising or falling intonation is used in the sentences.

• This music sounds good.
• I love watching horror movies.
• My sister’s name is Amina.
• Blue is my favourite colour.
• Is that tv good?
• Do you like that movie?
• Are you hungry?
• Get me my shoes.
• Study your lessons now.
• Are you insane?
• How many more hours before you are done with your work?
• Which novel is the best for you?
• He is a little bit nervous, isn’t he?
• You should listen to your parents’ advice.
• Did you finish your homework?
• Water is good for the body.
• This is good!
• What a crazy show.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

PUNS/WORD PLAY

• A pun is a form of word play that suggests several meanings, by either exploiting the multiple meanings of a word, or substituting a word for another similar sounding word, the result of which is humorous.
• A pun is also known as paronomasia.
• There are two main types of puns:
• Homophonic puns

This is where a word is substituted for another similar sounding word or word pronounced almost in the same way . For example,

Fishermen are reel men.

Explanation: There is a twist on the word ‘reel’ which is originally supposed to be spelt ‘real’.

Can you now explain the pun in the following homophonic puns?

1. What do sea monsters eat for lunch? Fish and ships.
2. I am on a seafood diet. Every time I see food, I eat it.
3. Did you about the Italian chef with terminal illness? He past away.
4. Beauty is in the eye of the beer holder.
5. What tea do hockey players drink? Penalttea
6. What do ghosts serve for dessert? I scream.
7. What did the tree sya to the autumn? Leaf me alone.
8. What did the boy cat say to the girl cat on valentine’s day? You’re purr-fect for me.
9. What day does an Easter egg hate the most? Fry-days.
10. Why did the scientist install a knocker on his door? He wanted to win the No-bell prize!

 

• Homographic puns

Homographic pun is formed by using a word that has multiple meanings. You might not tell what exactly what the speaker means.

For example;

Rose is the flower of my life.

Explanation: The word ‘Rose’ is a female name. it could be the person the speaker loves.

It  is also a type of flower.

The other examples are;

1. My math teacher called me average. How mean!
2. What do prisoners use to call each other? Cell phones.
3. No matter how much you push the envelope, it’ll remain stationery.
4. Have you ever tried to eat a clock? It’s very time consuming.
5. A waist is a terrible thing to mind.
6. I am reading a book about anti-gravity. It’s impossible to put down.
7. What part of football ground is never the same? The changing room.
8. I want to tell you a chemistry joke but I know I will not get a reaction.
9. Why did the bee get married? Because he found his honey.
10. Did you hear about the guy who got hit in the head with a can of soda? He was lucky it was a soft drink.

Features of Puns

Puns are characterized by;

1. They are short.
2. They are humorous.

Functions of Puns

They serve functions such as:

• Teaching pronunciation. For example, homophones.
• Enhancing creativity. One has to think in order to form their puns.
• When said one wonders what the speaker intends, the audience will laugh.

Exercise

Explain the pun in:

• I used to be a banker but I lost interest.
• A bicycle can’t stand on its own because it is two-tired.
• I don’t trust these stairs because they are always up to something.
• Santa’s helpers are known as subordinate clauses.
• The man who drank battery acid got charged.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

TONGUE TWISTERS

• A phrase or a sentence which is hard to speak fast because of alliteration or a sequence of nearly similar sounds is the tongue twister.
• It is worth noting that there is usually the use of mnemonic feature (sound devices or sound patterns) in the tongue twisters.
• Let us read the following tongue twisters fast.
• She sells sea shells on the sea shore.
• Any noise annoys an oyster but noisy noise annoys an oyster more.
• Kindly kittens knitting mittens keep kazooing in the king’s kitchen.

Sound Patterns in Tongue Twisters

1. Read the tongue twister below fast.

She saw a fish on the seashore and I am sure the fish she saw on the sea shore was a saw-fish.

In the words: she, shore and sure, there is the repetition of the consonant sound /ᶴ/ at the beginning of the words. This is alliteration.

Alliteration is the repetition of the initial consonant sound in the nearby words.

Can you identify any other instance of alliteration in the above tongue twister?

2. Read this other tongue twister and take note of the highlighted letters.

A skunk sat on a stump and thank the stump stunk, but the stump thank the skunk stunk.

The sound pattern here is consonance.

Consonance is the repetition of the inner consonant sound in the nearby words. An inner sound is that which comes after the first.

There is another instance of consonance. Can you illustrate it?

3. Repetition

• In most tongue twisters, there is repetition of words or phrases. In (1) above, the words ‘saw’, ‘fish’, etc. have been repeated.
• Now pick out the words and phrases repeated in these tongue twisters.
• If you tell Tom to tell a tongue twister, his tongue will be twisted as tongue twister twists tongues.
• The sixth sick Sheik’s sixth sheep’s sick.

4. Assonance

Let’s look at:

How much wood could a wood chopper chop, if a wood chopper could chop wood?

There is repetition of the /u:/ in the words; wood,could. This is assonance.

Assonance is the repetition of vowel sounds in the nearby words.

Features of Tongue Twisters

A tongue twister will have the following features:

• it is short and brief.
• It is alliterative.

Functions of Tongue Twisters

1. They entertain. When one confuses the pronunciation of sounds, the audience will laugh.
2. They teach pronunciation. We can, for example, learn the pronunciation of the sounds /f/ and /v/, /s/ and /ᶴ/ etc.
3. Enhance creativity.

Exercise 1

With illustrations, identify the sound patterns in:

• It’s not the cough that carries you off, it’s the coffin they carry you off in!
• If two witches were watching two watches, which witch would watch which watch?
• If a black bug bleeds black blood, what colour of blood does a blue bug bleed?
• I wish to wash my Irish watch.

Exercise 2

Read the item below and then answer questions after it:

We surely shall see the sun shine soon.

• Identify the genre.
• Which two sounds has the item been used to teach?

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

RHYME

• Rhyming words are the words that sound the same at the ends. Examples of rhyming words are:
• When a poem has rhyming words at the end of its lines, these are called ‘end rhymes’. Look at these two lines:

That keep me locked up tight

All of the things that make me feel not right

The words ‘tight’ and ‘right’ rhyme.

• By contrast, internal rhyme/ middle rhyme, is a rhyme that occurs either when:
• Two or more rhyming words occur within the same line;
• Two or more rhyming words appear in the middle of two separate lines, or sometimes more;
• A word at the end of a line rhymes with one or more in the middle of the following line.

 

• Read the poem below and then try to identify the instances of rhyme in it.

Mystic Travel

Mystic travel time

Too endless islands in your mind

 

Tiny lights majestic and free

Open the skies soar me

 

Travel your minds unseen road

To mysterious lands secrets untold

 

The mountains valley lay quiet

As a shower carries away

 

The warmth of an evening breeze

Built from within a day

 

Heat dances shadows on the lakes fiery bay

Constructing temples where gods could play

 

Today is the finest piece

For tranquil emptiness

 

Suggestions of fluent sensations

Congregated illusions of masturbations

 

Sympathize the richness of the truth

Energize the expected thoughts of youth

 

 

Reading the poem aloud, we can point out several rhyming couplets. They include among others:

• Free and me
• Away and day
• Sensations and masturbations
• Truth and youth

Internal Rhyme in Separate Lines

Here is are two examples of pairs of lines with middle rhymes in separate lines.

I see a red boat that has a red flag

Just like my red coat and my little red pail

 

The words ‘boat’ and ‘coat’ rhyme.

 

I’d like to jump into the ocean

But don’t dump me instead.

 

The rhyming words are ‘jump’ and ‘dump’.

 

Now read the stanza below from the poem ‘The Raven’ and identify all the pairs of rhyming words.

 

Once upon a midnight dreary, while i

Pondered, weak and weary

Over many a quaint and curious volume of

Forgotten  lore.

While I nodded, nearly napping, suddenly

There came a tapping

As if someone gently rapping, rapping at

My chamber door

’’Tis some visitor,’’ I muttered, ’’tapping at

My chamber door;

Only this, and nothing more.’’

Rhyme Scheme

• This is a way of describing the pattern of the end rhymes in a poem.
• The points below will help you in reading and notating the rhyme scheme.
• Each new sound at the end of a line is given a letter.
• The letters start with ‘a’ , then ‘b’, and so on.
• If an end sound repeats the end sound of an earlier line, it gets the same letter as that earlier line.
• Here are four different stanzas, each with a different rhyme scheme, that can help you understand rhyme scheme.

1. From Voices in My Head, by Ivor Davies

Suddenly a voice appears

I hear it in my mind

Within my head not in my ears

Not of the normal kind

 

The rhyme scheme is: abab

It is regular rhyme scheme as it is easy to predict when the sound will next appear.

2. From Falling Raindrops’ Prayer for the Broken.

I pray for the crying

For the hurt and the dying

For those burned and screaming

For each helper crying

 

The rhyme scheme is aaaaa

This too is regular.

3. From the poem by Robert Broadbent.

 

Early or late,

Patient …can’t wait

Lost or your found

The world goes around

 

The rhyme scheme here is aabb. This is a Regular scheme

4. From Happy Holidays by John Lumber.

Christmas Eve

Oh how supreme!

When Santa comes

Every night!

Then, next day,

I just can’t wait,

When the tree is all alight.

 

The rhyme scheme is abcdedd. This is irregular.

The irregular rhyme scheme occurs when you can’t predict when the end sound will be repeated.

 

Why Rhyme?

• Rhyme creates rhythm in the poem.
• It also makes reading or reciting the poem interesting.
• The poem is also made easy to memorize.

 

 

 

Exercise 1

Describe the rhyme scheme of the poem below by Robert Broadbent.

One Day at a Time

Happy or sad

Good days or bad

Cherry or down

The world goes around

 

Give up or try

Out going or shy

A smile or a frown,

The world goes around

 

Early or late,

Patient …can’t wait,

Lost or your found,

The world goes around

 

Angry, serene

Out spoken, unsent

Tense or unwound,

The world goes around

 

All future days,

Are hidden in haze,

Don’t worry, just learn,

To let the world turn.

 

Exercise 2

The incomplete poem below has the rhyme scheme: aabccbddebfe. Complete it with appropriate words.

Death did not take Paris silently

Rumbled the grave screaming _______________________

No child slept easy that _______________________

Twenty minutes of terror waking

Wee ones from sleep in cold sweats __________________________

Stealing their peaceful birthright.

 

Indelible imprints of ______________________

Ingrained in young psyches forever;

Post traumatic stress syndrome.

They may age, but they will not ____________________

The bloody death that evil begets

Shadows lurk in dreaming’s gloam.

(By Catie Lindsey)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

SONGS

• LULLABIES
• they are sung by a nanny, sibling, aunty, etc.in order to:

1. Send the baby to sleep.
2. Calm the crying baby.
3. Give promise to the crying baby. The promise can be that one of the parents is coming back.

• They are normally sung softly so as to lull the baby.
• If you have to clap, or hum, or whistle to the rhythm, do it softly and slowly.
• In the case where a child cries, rock the baby as you sing.
• You can also gently tap the back of the baby.
• They are normally short.
• They are also repetitive.
• Read the song below and then attempt the questions that follow.

Sleep baby sleep

Sleep baby sleep

Your father tends the sheep

Your mother shakes the dreamland tree.

1. Identify two features of lullabies in the above song.
2. Give the main reason for singing the above song.

• How would you do the following as you sing the song:

1. Clap to the rhythm of the song.
2. Rock the baby as you sing.

• CHILDREN SONGS
• They are sung by children during their playtime.
• Also referred to as play songs.

Features of Children Songs

1. Repetition is used. A word, sentence, and even a whole stanza can be repeated.
2. They are often short.

Functions of Children’s  Songs

1. They help in developing children’s language skills as they listen to familiar words in the songs.
2. Help develop children’s listen skills, thus concentrate.
3. Encourage creativity in children. At times you find children adding words that were not initially mentioned in the original versions of the songs.
4. Some teaching counting of numbers.

• Now read the song below. You can practice singing it.

In and out the bamboo forest

In and out the bamboo forest

In and out the bamboo forest

You are my partner.

Beat a beat on my shoulder

Beat a beat on my shoulder

Beat a beat on my shoulder

You are my partner.

• Teasing Songs
• Sung to make fun of someone.
• Religious Songs
• Sung and performed during religious occasions.
• Sung mostly at places considered holy grounds.
• Sung softly and slowly.
• Love Poetry/Songs
• They are based on romance.
• Sung by one to the loved one.
• They are sung softly and slowly as they should present romantic elements.
• They are sung to:

1. Express romance.
2. Mend the damaged relationship between lovers.

 

• Cradle Songs/Poetry
• Performed to mark the birth of a child.
• In most cases, a child is wished a successful life in future.
• Mostly performed by women and girls.
• During this time, a child or child’s mother is presented with gifts.
• War Poetry
• Performed by warriors during war.
• Sung loudly to show bravery.
• During the singing, weapons are held in the hands of the performers.
• Hunting Songs
• Hunters perform hunting songs.
• Sung on the way to and from hunting trip.
• Hunting tools carried in the process.
• Just like war songs, they are sung loudly.
• They are on the way to hunt to encourage themselves on the possibility of killing fatter and enough animals.
• Also to pass time on their way.
• Satirical Songs
• One’s folly is criticized in this song.
• They are meant to help the wicked in some areas to change.
• Epics/Heroic Poetry
• They are elaborate and talk about the lives of heroes known to the community.
• The heroic deeds of the heroes are mentioned.
• Dirges
• Also referred to as funeral songs or funeral poems.
• They are sung after learning about the death of someone.
• Can also be sung during the funeral ceremony.
• Should also be sung softly to show the sadness that result from losing someone’s beloved one.
• In some cases, weapons are held during the performance.
• There is the use of apostrophe. This is style of addressing an object or a death as if it is alive and can respond.
• While women sing, men chant.
• Panegyrics
• In its specialized form panegyric is a type of song and one meant to praise someone.
• The praise song can be sung by someone else or sung by one for self praises. Sometimes these are self-praises
• Formalized praises are directed publicly to kings, chiefs, and leaders, composed and recited by members of a king’s official entourage.
• One can be praised in case of:

1. personal achievement in war ; or
2. Achievement in hunting.

• Look at the panegyric in the next page.

Ogun kills on the right and destroys on the right.
Ogun kills on the left and destroys on the left.
Ogun kills suddenly in the house and suddenly in the field.
Ogun kills the child with the iron with which it plays.

Ogun kills in silence.
Ogun kills the thief and the owner of the stolen goods.
Ogun-kills the owner of the slave—and the slave runs away.
Ogun kills the owner of thirty ’iwofa’ [pawns]—and his money, wealth and children disappear.
Ogun kills the owner of the house and paints the hearth with his blood.
Ogun is the death who pursues a child until it runs into the bush.
Ogun is the needle that pricks at both ends.
Ogun has water but he washes in blood.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

ETIQUETTE

TELEPHONE ETIQUETTE

Telephone etiquette are the rules that demonstrate the proper and polite way to use your phone/telephone.

It starts from how you prepare for phone calls to when you end the call.

Preparation for Phone Call

The following should be done before placing a call:

• Ensure you have enough time. It will not auger well to suddenly end the conversation because of insufficient airtime.
• Go to a place where there is silence. Too much noise will distract your attention.
• Think through exactly what you want to say. Write it down if possible so you don’t forget what to say or ask and look as though you didn’t have anything to say.

Tips to Display When Making a Call

Whether at work, at home, or on your mobile phone, remember to display the tips below at all times:

1. Identify yourself at the beginning of the call.
2. Speak clearly and slowly especially when leaving the message.
3. Speak with a low tone of voice. Be sure to know how loud you may be.
4. Always end with a pleasantry, for example,’ Have a nice day.’
5. Let the caller hang up first.
6. Stay away from others while talking on the phone. They don’t need to hear your private conversation.

What to Avoid

1. Avoid being distracted by other activities while speaking. Some of these activities include:

• Rustling papers
• Chewing
• Driving
• Speaking with someone
• Shopping
• Working on the computer

2. Avoid allowing interruptions to occur during the conversation.
3. Do not engage in an argument with the caller.
4. Talking too loudly.

 

 

 

Not at these Places

The following are places you should not make a call. You should even have your cell phone in a silent mode or switch it off altogether.

• Bathrooms
• Hospitals
• Waiting rooms
• Meetings
• Museums
• Places of worship
• Lectures
• Live performances
• Funerals
• Weddings

Telephone Conversations

Here we shall focus on majorly business telephone conversations. It should be noted that there are patterns that are followed; but not all will follow this rigid pattern. The six patterns include:

1. The phone is answered by someone who asks if he/she can help.
2. The caller makes a request either to be connected to someone or for information.
3. The caller is connected, given information or told that that person is not present at the moment.
4. The caller is asked to leave a message if the person who is requested for is not in.
5. The caller leaves a message or asks other questions.
6. The phone call finishes.

Exercise 1

Read the telephone conversation below and then answer questions that follow.

Pauline: (a form two student, Wajanja School) ring ring… ring ring …

Secretary: Hello, Wajanja School, this is Ms Esther speaking. How may I be of help to you?

Pauline: Yes, this is Pauline Karanja a form two student calling. May I speak to the principal, please?

Secretary: I am afraid MsKaluma is not in the office at the moment. Would you like to leave a message?

Pauline: I would really want, thanks. When she comes back, tell her I wanted to ask for one day permission. My brother is sick and I would like to request her that I report one day after the opening day. It is I who will be left with my siblings as the brother goes to the hospital. That is all.

Secretary: Sorry for that, I wish him quick recovery. I would give her the message as soon.

Pauline:I would be grateful madam. Thanks again.

Pauline:Welcome Pauline. Just ensure you report as stated here.

Secretary: Ok have a nice day madam.

Pauline:You too have a perfect day. Goodbye

• With examples, outline the patterns of telephone conversation in above.
• Identify evidences of telephone etiquette tips displayed by Pauline in the conversation above.

Exercise 2

Your sibling is very sick. You are planning to make a doctor a phone call to come to your home to provide medication.

• State any three preparations you would put in place before making this important call.
• Give four bad habits you would avoid when making this call.

Exercise 3

Joan has just called the parent to ask them to pay the school fee. Unfortunately, the parent is not happy with the way she has made the call. Identify any four telephone etiquette tips shecould have failed to display.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

MASTERY OF CONTENT

INTERVIEWS

Have you ever attended the formal meetings where you are asked questions and are expected to respond to them? More than once you will be invited to attend interviews. You can also invite someone to interview. For this reason, you should some interview tips.

The two participants in an interview are the interviewer (at times a panel of interviewers), and the interviewee.

Tips for the Interviewees

Job Interview Preparations

If you really want to be considered for a particular job following an interview, you have to adequately prepare to succeed. The following are the preparations the interviewee would put in place before the interview:

• Contact your referees to alert them that you will be interviewed and they are likely to receive a call.
• Prepare your documents. Make sure they are neat and well arranged.
• Know the location where you are having the interview. It will help you know how long it will take you to reach there.
• Do some research about the organization.
• Prepare what to wear and how to groom.
• Anticipate potential questions and prepare answers correctly.
• Arrive early enough for the interview.
• Prepare questions to ask the interviewer at the end. It will show how much you are interested in working there.

During the Interview;

• Greet the interviewer.
• Knock on the door and wait for response before you enter. Shut the door behind you quietly.
• Wait until you are offered the seat before sitting.
• Sit or stand upright and look alert throughout.
• Make good eye contact with the interviewer to show you are honest.
• Explain your answers whenever possible and avoid answering questions with yes/no as answers.
• Answer questions honestly. Don’t ever lie!

Common Blunders you MUST Avoid

Avoid falling foul of the following:

1. Turning up late for the interview.
2. Dressing and grooming inappropriately.
3. Giving simple yes/no as answers.
4. Speaking negatively about your previous employer.
5. Sitting before invited.
6. Discussing time-off or money.

As an Interviewer

Before the Interview:

1. Write down questions to ask.
2. Call the prospective employee’s referees.
3. Prepare the place for the interview.
4. Alert the interviewee about the interview. Mention the time and place.
5. Arrive early for the interview.

During the Interview:

1. Allow them enough time to respond to questions.
2. Encourage them to speak by, for example, nodding your head when they answer questions.
3. Speak and ask questions politely. Be friendly but formal as much as you can.
4. Make eye contact with the interviewee to show you are listening to them.

 

Exercise 1

you are the secretary of journalism Club at Maembe Dodo Mixed School. On Friday you would like to interview your school Deputy Principal on the issue of Students’ Discipline.

• Write down any three questions you would ask him/her.
• Other than writing down questions to ask, how else would you prepare prepare for this day?
• State four things you would do as you interview him.

Exercise 2

Read the conversation below and then answer questions after it.

Ms Naomi: Welcome to our Doctor’s office.

Mr. Josh: Nice to be here.

Ms Naomi: I see from your resume that you are a cardiologist with 10 years of practice.

Mr. Josh: That’s right.

Ms Naomi: This interview is just to get to know you a little and then there are follow up interviews. So what do you do in your free time?

Mr. Josh: I like golfing and swimming. I also like to read newspapers.

Ms Naomi:Why did you want to be a doctor?

Mr. Josh:Actually I love helping people get well. I think cardiology has made great strides recently and I would like to share my findings with others.

Ms Naomi:Have you written in any scientific journals so far?

Mr. Josh:Not yet. But hopefully soon.

Ms Naomi:OK, we’d like to learn more about you. Let’s go for lunch wwith our colleagues, if that’s OK.

Mr. Josh:That’s fine, I am free.

 

• What two things qualify Ms Naomi as a good interviewer?
• Identify two evidences of interview tips displayed by Mr. Josh.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

READING FOR FORM TWO

 READING SKILLS

SCANNING AND SKIMMING..

Reading

• There is a lot of reading you will engage in. To cope with it all, you’ll need to develop some reading techniques.
• Here we’ll talk about scanning, skimming and reading for study.

Scanning

• When you scan a text, you search for one particular item (or set of items) while ignoring everything else.
• Suppose, for example, that you’re writing an assignment  on Effects of Drug Abuse, and you’re looking through a copy of Drug Addict’s Story, to see if there are any relevant material. You scan the list of contents to find the part written Drug Abuse , then scan the materials listed there.

Skimming

• Whereas you scan for specific information, you skim a text to get a general idea of what information it contains.
• In this case you might pick up the copy of Drug Addict’s Story in a library, skim through the contents, turn to a couple of articles that interest you and skim through the paragraphs to get a sense of what they are saying.
• You wouldn’t read every word, or even look at every paragraph.
• You just read enough to find out whether the book/newspaper is worth reading/buying.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 COMPREHENSION SKILLS

SUMMARY AND NOTE- MAKING.

SUMMARY

• An excellent summary is a summary written to show that you have read and understood something.
• You will get assignments that ask you to read a certain material and summarize it.

How to produce a summary:

1.Read the material to be summarized and be sure you understand it.

2.Outline the major points.

3.Write a first draft of the summary without looking at the material.

4.Always use paraphrase when writing a summary.

5.Target your first draft for approximately 1/4 the length of the original.

6.Never put any of your own ideas, opinions, or interpretations into the summary. This means you have to be very careful of your word choice.

7. Write in prose – not point form.

NOTE MAKING

How to Make Notes

The following tips will come in handy when making notes:

1. Read the material carefully and thoroughly.
2. Underline the key sentences as you read. This will help in forming the title.
3. Make a rough note of the main points in a logical sequence.
4. Write the final notes.

You should have in mind that a note:

1. Should be short and to the point.
2. Contain all the important and relevant information.
3. Should have information systematically divided and subdivided.
4. Should have a short title. Avoid long sentences as titles.
5. Must be written in points only.

 

Notes Template

TITLE …………………….

• ………………………………………….
• …………………………………………
• ………………………………………..
• ………………………………………..

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

GRAMMAR FOR FORM TWO

PARTS OF SPEECH

NOUNS

• COLLECTIVE NOUNS
• A collective noun is a word for a group of specific things or people regarded as an entity.
• Collective nouns are grouped under three categories:

1. Category of people
2. Category of animals

• Category of things

1. Category of People

The collective used here are:

• An audience of listeners
• A babble of barbers
• A bench of bishops
• A blush of boys
• A promise of barmen
• A board of directors
• A class of students
• An army of soldiers
• A band of musicians
• A bunch of crooks
• A cast of actors/players (also a company or cry of)
• A choir of singers
• A crew of sailors
• A crowd of people/ spectators
• A flock of tourists
• A gang of labourers
• A gang of thieves
• A goring of butchers
• A group of dancers
• A pack of thieves
• A panel of experts
• A regiment of soldiers
• A staff of employees
• A tabernacle of bakers
• A team of players
• A thought of barons
• A tribe of natives
• A troop of boy scouts
• A troupe of artists/dancers

 

2. Category of Animals

Those used for animals include:

• An army of ants
• A catch of fish
• A drove of goats/bullocks
• A fall of lambs
• A flight of birds
• A flock of birds
• A flock of sheep
• A haul of fish
• A herd of buffaloes/cattle/deer/elephants/goats
• A hive of bees
• A host of sparrows
• A kennel of dogs
• A knot of frogs
• A litter of cubs
• A litter of kittens/puppies
• A murder of crows
• A pack of wolves
• A pack of hounds
• A swarm of bees/flies
• A team of horses
• A team of ducks/horses/oxen
• A tribe of goats
• A troop of lions/monkeys
• A zoo of wild animals

 

3. Category of Things

• An album of autographs/photographs/stamps
• An anthology of poems/stories
• A basket of fruits
• A bowl of rice
• A bouquet of flowers
• A bunch of keys
• A chest of drawers
• A cloud of dust
• A convoy of lorries
• A fleet of ships/lorries
• A forest of trees (also; stand, clump, grove of)
• A galaxy of stars
• A group of islands
• A hedge of bushes
• A library of books
• A nest of rumours
• A pack of cards
• A pack of lies
• A pair of shoes
• A range of mountains
• A rouleau of coins
• A stack of wood
• A string of pearls
• A wad of notes

 

Exercise 1

What name is given to a group of:

 

1. Writers
2. Widows
3. Witches
4. Tailors
5. Judges
6. Grammarians
7. Shoemakers
8. Girl guides
9. Foresters
10. Prisoners
11. Preachers
12. Candidates
13. Matrons
14. Magistrates
15. Lawyers

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

• COMPOUND NOUNS
• A compound noun is a noun that is made with two or more words.
• There are three forms for compound nouns:
• Open or space – space between words, for example, man servant
• Hyphenated – hyphen between words, for example, sister-in-law
• Closed or solid – neither space nor hyphen between words, for example, witchcraft

Compound Nouns Combinations

The following are the compound noun combinations with examples:

Noun + Noun

Football

Eyelid

Adjective + Noun

Greenhouse

Hotdogs

Verb + Noun

Washing machine

Dinning table

Noun + Verb

Haircut

Rainfall

Verb + Preposition

Check-out

Noun + Prepositional Phrase

Master of ceremonies

Sister-in-law

Preposition + Noun

Underdog

Noun + Adjective

Spoonful

Plural Forms of Compound Nouns

• In general, we make the plural of the compound noun by adding –s to the most significant one. Look at the table

Singular	Plural
Head teacher Passerby Mother-in-law Wallpaper	Head teachers Passersby Mothers-in-law Wallpapers

 

• There are variations with those ending in –ful, like spoonful. You can either say spoonsful (new style), spoonfuls (old style). It is advisable you remain consistent in your choice.

Compound Noun	New Style	Old Style
Spoonful Bucketful Cupful Truckful Mouthful	Spoonsful Bucketsful Cupsful Trucksful Mouthsful	Spoonfuls Bucketfuls Cupfuls Truckfuls Mouthfuls

 

• There are those nouns that have no obvious significant word. They will require you to consult the dictionary to find their plural. For example,
• Go-betweens
• Good-for-nothings
• Grown-ups
• Higher-ups etc
• For compound nouns made of noun +noun, the first noun is taken as an adjective, and does not take an –s. examples
• Apple trees
• Toothbrushes
• Bus stops , etc

Exercise

Using compound nouns, shorten the underlined phrases in the sentences below.

• She is cleaning a room for stores.
• He bought a new ruler for measuring up to 30 cm.
• June is the assistant class secretary for form two.
• We had to stop at the station for the buses.
• Get me size of cables.
• They bought it as there was reduction in cost.
• Students are given two breaks of twenty minutes.
• These are the plugs with three pins.
• The mechanic has carried two metal boxes for the tools.
• Are you the wife of my son?

 

 

 

 

• POSSESSIVES
• A noun can be a possessive when it can also have “of a” or ”of the” preceding it. For example,

The watch of a girl – a girl’s watch.

The milk of the cow – the cow’s milk.

Singular Possessives

• A singular noun is usually made possessive by adding ‘s to the end of the noun. For example,

The man’s wheelbarrow is lost.

• Most proper nouns are made possessives by adding ‘s to the end of the word, for example,

Khalwale’s shirt is dark.

• A singular noun that ends in s can be made possessive by either adding ‘s to the end of the word, or by only adding ‘ to the end of the word. Example,

Matthews’ job is good.

Matthews’s job is good.

Plural Possessives

• A plural noun that ends in s can be made possessive by only adding ‘ to the end of the word. Example

All the technicians’ fingers were cut.

• A plural noun that ends in other letters apart from s can be made possessive by adding ‘s  to the word. For example,

The women’s team will play next week.

Possessive Pronouns

• Most possessive pronouns do not use an apostrophe to indicate possession. Examples
• That is its tail.
• His is the new one.
• Ours has been received.
• Some possessive pronouns use ‘s, for example,

Grade “A” is everyone’s dream.

This is someone’s wrist watch.

Note: “it’s” is a contraction for “it is” and not a possessive.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

PRONOUNS

• NUMBER AND PERSON IN PRONOUNS

Pronoun Number

• A pronoun can be singular or plural.
• Singular pronouns are:
• I, me, he, him, his, she, her, it, anyone, this, etc
• Plural pronouns are:
• We, us, they, them, these, all, those, etc

Pronoun Person

• Pronouns are divided into three grammatical persons. These divisions are:
• First person

It refers to the one or ones speaking.

The pronouns used here are I, me, mine, we, us, ours

• Second person

The one spoken to, or directly addressed, is referred to here.

The pronouns in the second person are you, yours

• Third person

It refers to the one or ones spoken about.

Some pronouns used in the second person are it, its, they, theirs, them

Examples in Sentences

1. She likes me.
2. Fred bought him an umbrella.

• Yours is the smallest.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

• INDEFINITE PRONOUNS
• An indefinite pronoun does not refer to any specific person, thing or amount.
• Some common indefinite pronouns are:

 

• All
• Another
• Any
• Anybody
• Anyone
• Anything
• Anywhere
• Both
• Each
• Either
• Enough
• Everybody
• Everyone
• Everything
• Few
• Many
• Nobody
• None
• One
• Several
• Some
• Somebody
• Someone
• Somewhere etc

 

• Most indefinite pronouns are either singular or plural. Some of them can, however, be used as singular and plural depending on the context.
• A singular pronoun takes a singular verb. Examples,

1. Each teacher has written her/his lesson notes.
2. There are two cups. One is

• By the same token, a plural pronoun takes a plural verb for agreement. Examples,

1. Many have been here.
2. Both are my friends.

Meaning of Some Typical Indefinite Pronouns

Singular Indefinite Pronouns

Pronoun	Meaning	Example in a Sentence
Another	Additional	That cook was stubborn. Can you help me get another?
Anybody/anyone	No matter what person	Is there anyone at home?
Anything	No matter what thing	Is there anything left there?
Each	Every one of two or more	Each has to pay for the damage.
Either	One of the two	Either is ok.
Enough	As much as needed	There is enough money to take us the whole week.
Everybody/everyone	All people	Since everyone has arrived has left, you can lock the gate.
Everything	All things	Everything that belongs to them have been swept by flood.
Neither	Not one and not the other of the two	I always advise Muktar and Asiya but neither listens to me.
Nobody/no-one	No person	I have written to many people but no-one has replied.
Nothing	Not anything	Nothing has been heard from them since.
One	An unidentified person or thing	One has not been found.
Other	A different one from the one that has been mentioned	One of the twins is brown while the other is dark.
Somebody/someone	Unknown or unspecified person	Someone is missing.
Something	An unspecified thing	I hope she is cooking something.

 

Plural Indefinite Pronouns

• Both
• Many
• All

Exercise 1

Complete the sentence with the most appropriate indefinite pronoun from the list given below.

 

Everyone

Somewhere

Everybody

Nothing

Anywhere

Anything

Anybody

Something

 

 

1. Would like ______________ to drink?
2. I couldn’t see _____________ in the dark.
3. Does _________ know her?
4. Don’t ask where she has gone. Dorothy can go __________ she feels like going.
5. The weapons were found ____________ here.
6. There is ____________ to watch.
7. Since _____________ has left, the shop can be closed.
8. We will get you _____________ you are. You can’t hide for long.
9. ____________ has approved our proposal.
10. We were told that there is a good school _____________ near here.

Exercise 2

Rewrite each sentence using the word in brackets.

1. He said nothing useful. (anything)
2. There is no anything left. (nothing)
3. Can anyone answer this question? (no-one)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

VERBS

• AUXILIARY VERBS
• Auxiliary (or Helping) verbs are used together with a main verb to show the verb’s tense or to form a negative or question.
• There are two categories of auxiliary verbs:
• Primary Auxiliaries
• Modal auxiliaries
• Primary Auxilliaries
• The most common auxiliary verbs are have, be, and do.
• The three have their forms as shown below.

Verb	Forms
Be	·        Be ·        Am ·        Is ·        Are ·        Was ·        Were ·        Been ·        Being
Have	·        Have ·        Has ·        Had
Do	·        Do ·        Does ·        Did

 

 

Examples in Sentences

1. Emiliana is running away from us.
2. If she doesn’t come on time, she’ll have to do all the work.
3. Does your name begin with an “F”?
4. The boys have finished the race.
5. I am writing you a notice
6. The milk has been drank by the cat.
7. I have purchased a new pair of shoes to replace the ones that were lost in my luggage.
8. We hope you don’t drop out of school.
9. She was asking Wachira a question.
10. Richard has been working hard the whole year.
11. Sarah doesn’t ski or roller skate.

(b)   Modal Auxiliary Verbs

• Unlike the primary auxiliary verbs, modal auxiliaries never change form.
• Look at the list of modal auxiliary verbs follows:

 

• Can
• Could
• May
• Might
• Must
• Need
• Ought to
• Shall
• Should
• Will
• Would

 

 

Functions of Auxiliary Verbs

Auxiliary verbs, also known as helping verbs, add functional or grammatical meaning to the clauses in which they appear. They perform their functions in several different ways:

• They express tense. For example past, present and future.
• Make sentences grammatically correct.
• They quantify verbs.
• Sentences are emphasized through them.

Auxiliary verbs almost always appear together with a main verb, and though there are only a few of them, they are among the most frequently occurring verbs in the English language.

Auxiliary Verb Exercises

Fill in the blank with the correct auxiliary verb from the choices presented:

1. What ________________ the kids doing when you last saw them? (was, were, are, did, been)
2. Carla ________________ always wanted to try skydiving. (was, doesn’t, has, is, have)
3. Where __________________ you go on your summer vacation? (were, been, are, did, does)
4. Why do you think she __________ call you like she said she would? (didn’t, is, hasn’t, has been, have)
5. Mary _____________ going to be upset when she hears what happened. (will, don’t, is, didn’t, has)
6. Jeremy _____________ want to go to the movies; he wants to stay home instead. (doesn’t, isn’t, wasn’t, hasn’t, was not)
7. I _________________ appreciate his jokes. They weren’t funny. (did, have, been, didn’t, haven’t)
8. I really like fish but I _______________ care for meat. (weren’t, been, don’t, is, was)
9. Where _____________ you going when I saw you last night? (were, was, is, do, did)
10. Tara ________________ called yet; she’s late as usual. (are, were, has, hasn’t, wouldn’t)

Answers: 1 – were, 2 – has, 3 – did, 4 – didn’t, 5 – is, 6 – doesn’t, 7 – didn’t, 8 – don’t, 9 – were, 10 – hasn’t

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

• PERFECTIVE ASPECT
• Also called complete aspect, is the aspect of a verb which expresses a completed action.
• The completed action can be:
• In the past, for example,
• We had met.
• She had left.
• They had drunk.
• In the present, examples,
• I have seen it.
• He has taken his bag.
• It has drunk its milk.
• In future, for example,
• She will have left.
• They will have gone.
• Helsy will have completed.

How to Form the Perfective Aspect

• Formed by using the auxiliary verb have and the past participle form of the main verb.

Past Perfect Tense

• Expresses action completed in the past.
• There could be one action completed before the one started.

Examples in Sentences

1. When he arrived, I had already eaten.
2. John had finished high school by the time I joined form one.
3. Gregory had seen them.

The Present Perfect Tense

• Expresses the action completed in the present, before the next one starts.
• Examples of sentences in this tense are:
• He has played.
• We have finished.
• I have jumped already.

The Future Perfect Tense

• The future perfect tense refers to a completed action in the future. When we use this tense we are projecting ourselves forward into the future and looking back at an action that will be completed some time later than now. It is most often used with a time expression.
• The future perfect is composed of two elements
  the simple future of the verb “to have” (will have) + the past participle of the main verb

 

Affirmative	Negative	Interrogative	Negative Interrogative
I will have jumped	I won’t have jumped	Will I have jumped?	Won’t I have jumped?
You will have jumped	You won’t have jumped	Will you have jumped?	Won’t you have jumped?
He will have jumped	He won’t have arrived	Will he have arrived?	Won’t he have arrived?
We will have jumped	We won’t have jumped	Will we have jumped?	Won’t we have jumped?
They will have jumped	They won’t have jumped	Will they have jmped?	Won’t they have jumped?

Function

Examples

• I will have been here for six months on June 23rd.
• By the time you read this I will have left.
• You will have finished your report by this time next week.
• Won’t they have arrived by 5:00?
• Will you have eaten when I pick you up?

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

• PROGRESSIVE ASPECT
• It expresses an on-going action.
• The action could have been in the past, present, or will happen in future.
• Verbs in this aspect are recognizable by the present participle (-ing)

Progressive Aspect with Past Tense

We use the pattern:

Was or were + present Participle,

Examples

• We were travelling.
• She was writing.

Progressive Aspect with Present Tense

The pattern below is used

Is or are +present participle, for example

• She is writing.
• They are dancing.

Progressive Aspect With Future Time

To form this, we use the pattern:

Will be + present participle

• He will be cyling.
• They will be crying.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

• FUTURE TIME
• There are a number of different ways of referring to the future in English. It is important to remember that we are expressing more than simply the time of the action or event.
• Future always refers to a time ‘later than now’, but it may also express our attitude to the future event.

All of the following ideas can be expressed using different tenses:

• Simple prediction: There will be strike next week.
• Arrangements: She is running to Kilgoris tomorrow.
• Plans and intentions: They are going to fly to London in December.
• Prediction based on present evidence: I think it’s going to rain!
• Willingness: She will pay your
• An action in progress in the future: This time next year he will be in form three.
• An event or action that is a routine: You will be seeing Perpetua in the church tomorrow.
• Obligation: You are to drive directly to my house.
• An action or event that will take place immediately or very soon: The train is about to leave.
• Projecting ourselves into the future and looking back at a completed action: A month from now he will have finished all his exams.

The four future verb tenses in English are:

• Simple future tense
• Future continuous tense
• Future perfect tense
• Future perfect continuous tense

Simple future tense

The simple future refers to a time later than now, and expresses facts or certainty.

Examples in Sentences

• I will see you later.
• She will do it. Do not worry.

How to Form the simple future

• The simple future tense is composed of two parts: will / shall + the infinitive without
• study the table below:

Affirmative	Negative	Interrogative
I will visit	I won’t visit. I will not visit.	Will I visit? Won’t I visit?
She will visit.	She won’t visit. She will not visit.	Will she visit? Won’t she visit?
They will visit.	They won’t visit. They will not visit.	Will they visit? Won’t they visit?

 

Contractions in simple Future

I will = I’ll
We will = we’ll
You will = you’ll
He will = he’ll
She will = she’ll
They will = they’ll
Will not = won’t

Future continuous

• The future continuous refers to an unfinished action or event that will be in progress at a time later than now.
• The future continuous is made up of:
  the simple future of the verb ‘to be’ + the present participle (base+ing)
• The future continuous is used for quite a few different purposes. These functions include:
• To project oneself into the future. Example

This time next month she will be writing her final paper.

• To predict or guess about future events. Example

You’ll be missing these meals once leave high school.

• To ask politely for information about the future. Example

Will you be attending my weeding this weekend?

• To refer to continuous events expected to happen in the future. Examples

I’ll be tracing him next month.

Future perfect

• The future perfect tense refers to a completed action in the future.
• In using this tense, we project ourselves forward into the future and looking back at an action that will be completed sometime later than now.
• It is most often used with a time expression.
• To form it, include:
  the simple future of the verb “to have” (will have) + the past participle of the main verb

Examples in Sentences

• Won’t you be here for my party for three hours next week?
• You will have evacuated the building by the time the constructors arrive.
• She will have left by the time we arrive.

Future Perfect Continuous

• This tense is used to project oneself forward in time and to look back.
• It refers to events or actions in a time between now and some future time are unfinished.
• It is most often used with a time expression.
• The future perfect continuous is composed of two elements
  the future perfect of the verb “to be” (will have been) + the present participle of the main verb (base + ing)
• Study the examples below:
• I will have been doing my degree at the university for two years by 2019.
• By 2030 he will have been driving his car for 15 years.
• Next year I will have been learning in this school for three years.

 

 

 

ADJECTIVES

ORDER OF ADJECTIVES

• Adjectives denoting attributes usually occur in a specific order.
• In general, adjectives follow the following order:

Order	Examples
Quantity	Thirty, many, some
Opinion	Nasty, dirty, beautiful
Size	Short, tiny, huge
Shape	Square, round, circular
Age	Young, new, 20-year-old
Colour	Green, indigo, pink
Origin/Nationality	Kenyan, English, Chinese
Purpose	Serving, sleeping,
Material	Glass, earthen, metallic
Noun

 

Examples in Sentences

1. Hamisi has decided to sell his flashy new German
2. I met several charming Indian

• There are three big football balls in the store.

1. She has bought a few small white sleeping

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

ADVERBS

• ADVERBS OF PLACE
• They talk about when the action happened, will happen, or happens.
• They are placed after the main verb or object.
• Examples of adverbs of place are:
• Up
• Down
• Far
• Overseas
• Nearby
• North, etc

Examples in Sentences

1. She went there.
2. The supermarket is
3. She went overseas.
4. The bedroom is upstairs.

• ADVERBS OF DEGREE
• An adverb of degree tells us the intesity at which at which an action occurs, or degree of an adjective or another adverb.
• Examples of adverbs of degree are:
• Extremely
• Quite
• Very
• Almost
• Just etc

 

Examples in Sentences

1. It very cold outside.
2. This water is extremely hot.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

PREPOSITIONS

COMPLEX PREPOSITIONS

• A complex preposition consists of two or three word combinations but acting as a single unit.
• Below are the examples:
• In accordance with
• On behalf of
• In aid of
• In line with
• With respect to
• By mean of
• In relation to

Examples in Sentences

1. I am writing in regard to what we discussed yesterday.
2. He came on behalf of his boss.
3. A word can be distinguished on the basis of stress.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CONJUNCTIONS

SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

• A subordinating conjunction joins a subordinate clause (dependent) to a main clause (independent clause).
• A subordinating conjunction is always followed by a clause.
• It reduces the importance of one clause so that the reader understands which of the two ideas are important.
• Separate the subordinate clause from the main clause with a comma when the sentence begin with a subordinate clause.
• The following is a list of common subordinating conjunctions:

 

• After
• Although
• As
• As if
• As long as
• As much as
• As soon as
• As though
• Because
• Before
• Even if
• Even though
• How
• If
• Inasmuch
• In order that
• Lest
• Now that
• Once
• Provided
• Provided that
• Since
• So that
• Than
• That
• Though
• Till
• Unless
• Until
• When
• Whenever
• Where
• Whereas
• Wherever
• While
• Why

 

Examples in Sentences

1. When the door was knocked, Joan rose to open it.
2. It is hard to give up drugs once you get addicted.

• Because I was sick, I went to see the doctor.

1. Although it was cold, he took off his coat.
2. I can’t take you out since I have no money.

Exercise

Combine the pair of sentences using subordinating conjunction. Choose the conjunction from the list below.

 

Rather than

 While

Whereas

Now that

Before

Whether or not

Once

Even though

Since

 

 

1. Henry passed the exams first time. Jane had to retake the exams twice.
2. My sister likes Math. I prefer Chemistry.
3. It was raining. I didn’t get wet.
4. I will be late today. There is jam in town.
5. Njuguna passed the test. Njuguna did not revise.
6. I will leave. There is someone to take care of the baby.
7. John is a boy. Mary is a girl.
8. Go to play. Call your sister.
9. I didn’t give the money to my sister. I gave the money to my cousin.
10. You know him personally. You have to agree that he has done a lot for this country.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

INTERJECTIONS

• A word(s) used to exclaim or protest or command.
• An injection conveys an emotion. The emotion can be of joy, disgust, surprise, excitement, etc.
• This word is normally placed at the beginning of a sentence.
• A forceful injection is followed by an exclamation mark.
• A less forceful injection is followed by a comma.

Examples in Sentences

1. Wow! I have won it!
2. Jeepers, that was too close.

• Indeed, I like it.

1. Good! I can now relax.
2. Oh, I didn’t know about that
3. No, leave me alone.

Interjections which are Sounds

Interjections that follow are of sounds:

• Phew
• Ah!
• Mmm!
• Humph

Exercise

Fill the blanks with appropriate interjections.

1. __________, I can’t see you tomorrow.
2. _________, I will wait for you.
3. __________ ! The train is leaving!
4. ___________ I can now go and play.
5. _________ ! I am lost in this big town!
6. _________, that is wonderful.

 

 

 

 

 

 

PHRASES

• CONSTITUENTS OF VERB PHRASES
• A sentence must have a verb.
• A verb phrase has a verb as the head word.
• A verb phrase consists of a main verb plus auxiliary veb(s).
• Look at the sentence below.

These girls are annoying.

Are annoying is the verb phrase.

Are is an auxiliary verb.

Annoying is the main verb.

• The main verb normally comes at the end of the phrase.

More Examples In Sentences

1. The prices have fallen.
2. They could be running from me.
3. They have been asking this question over and over again.
4. She should have been writing the book.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

• CONSTITUENTS OF ADVERB PHRASES
• An adverb phrase is a word group with an adverb as the main word.
• An adverb phrase can modify a verb, an adjective, or an adverb.

Constituents of Adverb Phrases

An adverb phrase can consist of:

• An adverb
• Pre modifier, which can be an adverb, adjective, or a preposition.
• Post modifier

Adverb Phrases Examples

1. Quite slowly

Quite is the pre modifier, while slowly is the adverb

1. On Friday night

Pre modifier is the preposition on . night is the post modifier

Examples in Sentences

1. The project was done very slowly.
2. We talked all day long.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CLAUSES

• INDEPENDENT AND SUBORDINATE CLAUSES

Independent Clauses

• A clause is independent when it meets the following conditions:
• It has a subject
• It has an action—what the subject is doing.
• It expresses a complete thought.

Examples

1. We left home.
2. He lives in Nairobi.

Subordinate Clauses

• A subordinate clause (or dependent) clasuse cannot stand alone as a sentence since it does not express a complete thought.
• A dependent clause begins with a subordinate conjunction or relative pronouns or a relative adverb.
• It leaves one wondering “what happened?”

Examples

1. Where she went
2. Before Khamisi arrived.
3. After she abused me.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

• COMPOUND SENTENCES
• A compound sentence has two independent clauses.
• An independent clause, as earlier discussed, has a subject and and a verb and expresses a complete thought.
• The two independent clause forming a compound sentence are joined using a coordinating conjunction. At times, a semi colon is used.
• The coordinating conjunctions are:
• For
• And
• Nor
• But
• Or
• Yet
• So

These conjunctions can be best remembered by a handy mnemonic: FANBOYS.

• Here is an example of a compoud sentence:

He works in Wajir, but he stays in Isiolo.

• The sentence has two independent clauses: he works in Wajir and he stays in Isiolo.
• But is the coordination conjunction joining the two clauses.

Other Examples

1. Rose wanted to buy a dress, but she didn’t have enough money.
2. They did not go to church, yet their parent advised them to.
3. Do you want to go to Rongo or Homabay?

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

• COMPLEX SENTENCES
• A complex sentence is made up of an independent clause and at least one dependent clauses.
• A dependent clause lacks one of the elements that would make it a complete sentence.
• The clauses making up the complex sentence are combined using a subordinating conjunction.
• Here is an example for you:

Mobile phones have helped a lot since they came to the market.

• The independent clause mobile phones have helped a lot is joined to the dependent clause since they came to the market.

More Examples in Sentences

1. Although deer eat my crops, they are cute.
2. Before you leave, give me your address.
3. While I prefer a permanent house, my wife prefers a semi permanent one.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

• ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE
• A sentence can either have a verb in active form or passive form.

Active Voice

• In a sentence with an active verb, the subject performs the action denoted by the verb.
• Here is a sentence where the subject is performing the verb’s acton.

James is writing the notes.

• James is the subject doing the action “writing”.
• Since the subject James does the action, the sentence is said to be in the active voice.

More Examples

1. Richard locked the door.
2. Akoth painted the room.
3. He is buying the phone.

Passive Voice

• A normal order of many active sentences can be changed, such that the subject is no longer active.
• In the case above, the subject is being acted upon by the verb.
• Here is an example for you:

The notes were written by James.

• The subject is the notes.
• it is passive as it is acted upon by the verb.
• Since the subject is being acted upon, the sentence is said to be in a passive voice.

More Examples

1. The door was locked.
2. The room was painted by Akoth.
3. The phone is being bought by him.

Changing a  Sentence from Active Voice to Passive Voice

Follow the steps below in order to change the sentence from active to passive voice:

• Move the active sentence’s direct object in the subject’s slot.
• Place the active sentence’s subject into a phrase beginning with the preposition “by” .
• Add a form of the auxiliary verb “be” to the main verb and change the main verb’s form.

 

 

 

 

Exercise

Change the sentences below to passive voice.

1. Juliet changed the flat tire.
2. Gregory painted the entire house.
3. Who taught you Physics?
4. No one answered my call.
5. Who stole my bag?
6. The hunter killed the antelope.
7. They will send her a success card.
8. The terrible news shocked everyone.

 

GRAMMAR ANSWERS

PARTS OF SPEECH

NOUNS

COLLECTIVE NOUNS

 

• Worship
• Ambush
• Coven
• A disguising
• Bench
• A conjunction
• Blackening
• Company
• Stalk
• A pity/a gang
• Converting
• Slate
• Riches
• Bench
• Eloquence

 

 

• COMPOUND NOUNS

1. She is cleaning a room for stores.

She is cleaning a storeroom.

1. He bought a new ruler for measuring up to 30 cm.

He bought a 30-cm ruler.

1. June is the assistant class secretary for form two.

June is the assistant form two class prefect.

1. We had to stop at the station for the buses.

We had to stop the bus station.

1. Get me size of cables.

Get me  cable size.

1. They bought it as there was reduction in cost.

They bought it as there was cost reduction.

1. Students are given two breaks of twenty minutes.

Students are given two-twenty minute breaks.

1. These are the plugs with three pins.

These are the three-pin plugs.

1. The mechanic has carried two metal boxes for the tools.

The mechanic has carried two metal toolboxes.

1. Are you the wife of my son?

Are you my daughter-in-law?

PRONOUNS

INDEFINITE PRONOUNS

Exercise 1

• Something
• Anything
• Anybody
• Anywhere
• Somewhere
• Nothing
• Everyone/everybody
• Anywhere
• Everyone/everybody
• Somewhere

Exercise 2

• He didn’t say anything useful.
• There is nothing left.
• No-one can answer this question.

SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

1. Henry passed the exams first time. Jane had to retake the exams twice.

Henry passed the exams the first time while/whereas Jane had to retake them twice.

2. My sister likes Math. I prefer Chemistry.

Whereas/while my sister likes Math, I prefer Chemistry.

3. It was raining. I didn’t get wet.

Even though it was raining, I didn’t get wet.

I didn’t get wet even though it was raining.

4. I will be late today. There is jam in town.

I will be late today since there is jam in town.

Since there is jam in town, I will be late today.

5. Njuguna passed the test. Njuguna did not revise.

Even though Nuguna did not revise, he passed the test.

6. I will leave. There is someone to take care of the baby.

Now that there is someone to take care of the baby, I will leave.

7. John is a boy. Mary is a girl.

John is a boy while Mary is a girl.

8. Go to play. Call your sister.

Before you go to play, call your sister.

9. I didn’t give the money to my sister. I gave the money to my cousin.

Rather than giving the money to my sister, I gave it to my cousin.

10. You know him personally. You have to agree that he has done a lot for this country.

Whether or not you know him personally, you have to agree that he has done a lot for this country.

 

INTERJECTIONS

 

• No,
• Well
• Hurry
• Phew
• Alas
• Ahh

 

 

ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE

1. The flat tire was changed by Juliet.
2. The entire house was painted by Gregory.
3. By whom were you taught Physics?
4. My call was not answered by anyone.
5. My bag was stolen by whom?
6. The antelope was killed by the hunter.
7. A success card will be sent to her.
8. Everyone was shocked by the terrible news.

 

 WRITING FOR FORM TWO

SPELLING

COMMONLY MISSPELT WORDS

The table below contains words that are normally misspelt.

absence accidentally accommodate accumulate achievement acquaintance acquire acquitted advice advise amateur among analysis analyze annual apartment apparatus apparent appearance arctic arguing argument arithmetic ascend athletic attendance balance battalion beginning belief believe beneficial benefited boundaries Britain business calendar candidate category cemetery changeable changing choose chose coming commission committee comparative compelled conceivable conferred conscience conscientious conscious control controversial controversy criticize deferred definitely

definition describe description desperate dictionary dining disappearance disappoint disastrous discipline dissatisfied dormitory effect eighth eligible eliminate embarrass eminent encouragement encouraging environment equipped especially exaggerate excellence exhilarate existence existent experience explanation familiar fascinate February fiery foreign formerly forty fourth frantically generally government grammar grandeur grievous height heroes hindrance hoping humorous hypocrisy hypocrite immediately incidentally incredible independence inevitable intellectual intelligence interesting irresistible

knowledge laboratory laid led lightning loneliness lose losing maintenance maneuver manufacture marriage mathematics maybe mere miniature mischievous mysterious necessary Negroes ninety noticeable occasionally occurred occurrence omitted opinion opportunity optimistic paid parallel paralysis paralyze particular pastime performance permissible perseverance personal personnel perspiration physical picnicking possession possibility possible practically precede precedence preference preferred prejudice preparation prevalent principal principle privilege probably procedure proceed

profession professor prominent pronunciation pursue quantity quizzes recede receive receiving recommend reference referring repetition restaurant rhyme rhythm ridiculous sacrifice sacrilegious salary schedule seize sense separate separation sergeant severely shining similar sincerely sophomore specifically specimen statue studying succeed succession surprise technique temperamental tendency tragedy transferring tries truly tyranny unanimous undoubtedly unnecessary until usually village villain weather weird whether woman women writing

 

Task

Write the correct spelling for:

 

• absense
• acceptible
• accidentaly
• accomodate
• acheive
• acknowlege
• acquaintence
• aquire
• aquit
• acrage
• adress
• adultary
• adviseable
• agression
• allegience
• allmost
• alot
• amatuer
• annualy
• apparant
• arguement
• athiest
• aweful
• becuase
• becomeing
• begining
• beleive
• bouy
• busines
• calender
• camoflage
• catagory
• cauhgt
• cemetary
• changable
• cheif
• collaegue
• colum
• comming
• commited
• conceed
• congradulate
• consciencious
• concious
• concensus
• contraversy
• cooly
• decieve
• definate
• definately
• desparate
• diffrence
• dilema
• disapoint
• disasterous
• drunkeness
• embarass
• equiptment
• excede
• exilerate
• existance
• experiance
• extreem
• facinating
• firey
• flourescent
• foriegn
• freind
• guage
• greatful
• garantee
• guidence
• harrass
• heighth
• heirarchy
• humerous
• hygene
• hipocrit
• ignorence
• immitate
• imediately
• independant
• inteligence
• judgement
• liesure
• liason
• libary
• lisence
• maintainance
• millenium
• mischievious
• mispell
• neccessary
• neice
• nieghbor
• noticable
• occassion
• occasionaly
• occurence
• occured
• ommision
• orignal
• outragous
• parliment
• passtime
• percieve
• perseverence
• personel
• playwrite
• posession
• potatos
• preceed
• presance
• privelege
• professer
• promiss
• pronounciation
• prufe
• questionaire
• readible
• realy
• recieve
• reciept^[
• recommend
• refered
• referance
• relevent
• religous
• repeatition
• restaraunt
• ryme
• rythm
• secratary
• sieze
• seperate
• sargent
• similer
• skilfull
• speach
• sucessful
• supercede
• suprise
• tomatos
• tommorrow
• twelvth
• tyrany
• underate
• untill
• usible
• vaccum
• vehical
• visious
• wether
• wierd
• wellfare
• withold
• writting

 

Answers

 

1. absence
2. acceptable –
3. accidentally/accidently
4. accommodate
5. achieve
6. acknowledge
7. acquaintance
8. acquire
9. acquit
10. acreage
11. address
12. adultery
13. advisable
14. aggression
15. allegiance
16. almost
17. a lot
18. amateur
19. annually
20. apparent
21. argument
22. atheist
23. awful
24. because
25. becoming
26. beginning
27. believe
28. buoy
29. business
30. calendar
31. camouflage
32. category
33. caught
34. cemetery
35. changeable
36. chief
37. colleague
38. column
39. coming
40. committed
41. concede
42. congratulate
43. conscientious
44. conscious
45. consensus
46. controversy
47. coolly
48. deceive
49. definite
50. definitely
51. desperate
52. difference
53. dilemma
54. disappoint
55. disastrous
56. drunkenness
57. embarrass
58. equipment
59. exceed
60. exhilarate
61. existence
62. experience
63. extreme
64. fascinating
65. fiery
66. fluorescent
67. foreign
68. friend
69. gauge
70. grateful
71. guarantee
72. guidance
73. harass
74. height
75. hierarchy
76. humorous
77. hygiene
78. hypocrite
79. ignorance
80. imitate
81. immediately
82. independent
83. intelligence
84. judgment
85. leisure
86. liaison
87. library
88. license
89. maintenance
90. millennium
91. mischievous
92. misspell
93. necessary
94. niece
95. neighbor
96. noticeable
97. occasion
98. occasionally
99. occurrence
100. occurred
101. omission
102. original
103. outrageous
104. parliament
105. pastime
106. perceive
107. perseverance
108. personnel
109. playwright
110. possession
111. potatoes
112. precede
113. presence
114. privilege
115. professor
116. promise
117. pronunciation
118. proof
119. questionnaire
120. readable
121. really
122. receive
123. receipt
124. recommend
125. referred
126. reference
127. relevant
128. religious
129. repetition
130. restaurant
131. rhyme
132. rhythm
133. secretary
134. seize
135. separate
136. sergeant
137. similar
138. skilful
139. speech
140. successful
141. supersede
142. surprise
143. tomatoes
144. tomorrow
145. twelfth
146. tyranny
147. underrate
148. until
149. usable/useable
150. vacuum
151. vehicle
152. vicious
153. weather
154. weird
155. welfare
156. withhold
157. Writing

 

 

 

 

 

 

BUILDING SENTENCE SKILLS AND PARAGRAPHING

 

DEVICES OF DEVELOPING PARAGRAPHS

• Giving Reasons
• Giving reasons is one way to illustrate or develop paragraphs.
• Many topic sentences give the writers’ personal opinion. Suppose, for example, that your write a paragraph with the topic sentence Living in the village is more comfortable than in towns.
• To make others accept your opinion, you have to explain why you think that is the case.

Reasons answer the question why? Why do you think life in villages is more comfortable? You could have reasons as follow:

Reason: Food is fresh from the garden.

Reason: There is no rent and to pay.

Reason: The challange of traffic jam does not exist in the villages.

• Can you write a paragraph using the reasons and topic sentence above?
• Reasons are not just stated; they are supported by details. Some details may be facts, some opinions..

 

• Comparing and Contrasting
• Some writing topics will ask you to consider the relationship between two things, for example, the houses in your village and those in the town you currently reside.
• Those kind of topics may allow you to organize your paragraph either around the similarities between these two subtopics or around the differences between them.

Sample Paragraph

Comparison Paragraphs Organized by Similar Points

Consider the following paragraph:

The houses in my village and the houses in the town I currently reside have several things in common. First, both are small and have very few people staying in them. For example in the houses in the village, between 5-10 people stay in such houses. Similarly, in the houses in my present reidential area, Faruku, a household has about eight people. A second way in which the two are similar ……..

Comparison Conjunctions

• In the comparison paragraphs there are various conjunctions that contribute to paragraph coherence.
• Here is a list of comparison conjunctions you can use:

Short Conjunctions	Longer Expressions
Similarly, Likewise, …the same… …the same as… …also… …, too. both	In the same way, X is similar to Y in that (they)… X and Y are similar in that (they)… Like X, Y [verb]… In like manner, One way in which X is similar to Y is (that)… Another way in which X is similar to Y is (that)…

Contrast Conjuctions

Here are some contrast conjunctions that you can use:

Short Conjunctions	Subordinating Conjunctions
However, In contrast, By contrast, …, but …, yet	On the other hand, even though + [sentence] although + [sentence] whereas + [sentence] unlike + [sentence] while + [sentence] nevertheless,

 

• Using Idiomatic Expressions
• Read the paragraph below. The words in boldface are the idiomatic expressions.

When I entered university, I lived in a small town near Ngunjiri. That was the first time I lived alone. I felt it was a feather in my cap. I had nothing but a small bicycle. But I felt happy every day. I wasn’t afraid to lose my shirt because I always lived on a shoestring. I didn’t become hot under the collar because everyone helped me kindly.I found a part-time job in supermarket. The owner was a bit of a stuffed shirt. So I tried to keep his shirt on and to handle our customers with kid gloves.The experience taught me a sense of responsibility.

 

• Using Facts/Statistics
• Another way to develop a paragraph is to include Include Facts and Statistics.
• Offer precise data from your own knowldege, or from authoritative sources, possibly in numerical form.
• Summarize the results, or quote your sources.
• Facts and statistics are the kinds of evidence many readers consider convincing proof of generalizations and opinions.
• Facts and statistics also help readers understand a subject/topic.
• Using Rhetorical Questions
• A rhetorical question cannot be answered to you but the reader might answer the question to himself/herself.
• A question which is posed without the expectation of an answer is called a “rhetorical question.”

 

 

PUNCTUATION

QUOTATION MARKS

• Quotations marks ( “” ) are a pair of punctuation marks used primarily to mark the beginning and end of a passage attributed to another and repeated word for word.
• They are also used to indicate meanings and to indicate the unusual or uncertain status of a word.
• Single quotation marks (‘) are used most frequently for quotes within quotes.
• Use quotation marks to cite something someone said exactly. Examples

• “I’m coming right now,” she said.
• Kim told me, “Don’t leave your shoes at the door. They will be stolen.”
• Harry told me not to forget my soccer jersey.

 

• When rephrasing what someone told you, no quotation marks are needed. Example,

She said she was coming then.

• If quoting others within a quote, both single and double quotation marks are used to set the two separate quotations off from each other.

 

 

APOSTROPHE

• An apostrophe (‘) is used to indicate the omission of a letter or letters from a word, the possessive case, or the plurals of lowercase letters.
• Examples of the apostrophe in use include:
• Omission of letters from a word: Are you comin’.
• Possessive case: Joel‘s house has been painted black.
• Plural for lowercase letters: They were told to mind their p’s and q’s.
• The apostrophe has two different, but important uses in English: possession and contractions.

The contraction Apostrophe

The apostrophe is placed where the omitted letter would be in that case.

Type	Without contractions	Contractions
NOT	is not, has not, had not, did not, would not, can not	isn’t, hasn’t, hadn’t, didn’t, wouldn’t, can’t
IS	she is, there is, he is, it is, Mary is, Jim is, Germany is, who is	she’s, there’s, he’s, it’s, Mary’s, Jim’s, Germany’s, who’s
AM	I am	I’m
WILL	I will, you will, she will, we will, they will	I’ll, you’ll, she’ll, we’ll, they’ll
WOULD	I would, you would, he would, we would, they would	I’d, you’d, he’d, we’d, they’d
HAVE	I have, you have, we have, they have	I’ve, you’ve, we’ve, they’ve
ARE	you are, they are, we are	you’re, they’re, we’re

The possessive apostrophe

In most cases you simply need to add ‘s to a noun to show possession

Examples

• Boy’s voice
• Teacher’s students

HYPHEN

• A hyphen is used between the parts of a compound word or name or between the syllables of a word, especially when divided at the end of a line of text.
• Examples of this in use include:
• Between a compound noun: father-in-law
• Within a compound word: back – to – back
• In general, hyphens are used to join two words or parts of words together while avoiding confusion or vagueness.

Examples

• go-down
• up-to-date

• There are some cases where hyphens maintain written clarity such as where there are letter collisions, where a prefix is added, or in family relations. Many words that have been hyphenated in the past have since dropped the hyphen and become a single word (email, nowadays).

Examples

• co-operate
• post-colonial
• great-grandmother

Ø  Hyphens are also used in numbers

Examples

• Thirty-six
• Three-fifths

• Use a hyphen when a number forms part of an adjectival compound

Examples

• The school allows a 30-minute break.
• Most of us were born in the tweentienth-century.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1. STUDY WRITING
   • SUMMARIES

SUMMARY

• An excellent summary is a summary written to show that you have read and understood something.
• You will get assignments that ask you to read a certain material and summarize it.

How to produce a summary:

1.Read the material to be summarized and be sure you understand it.

2.Outline the major points.

3.Write a first draft of the summary without looking at the material.

4.Always use paraphrase when writing a summary.

5.Target your first draft for approximately 1/4 the length of the original.

6.Never put any of your own ideas, opinions, or interpretations into the summary. This means you have to be very careful of your word choice.

7. Write in prose – not point form.

 

• DESCRIPTIVE ESSAYS

• This type of essay requires the writer to describe
• The writer should be quite vivid in their description.
• The writer should also be observant.

Describing a person

• When you are describing a person, you are telling the reader something about him or her. The quality of your description will depend on your observation and on how well you can express yourself in writing.

Example:

Victor Kumasi

We hear about him a lot. He is always the first to arrive in the classroom. This has made him our class teacher’s favourite. When it comes to running, I don’t know what to say; he runs faster than most of the athletes we admire. The only surprising thing is that he never speaks English. Even at that he remains the most loved in the whole school.

 

Describing a place

In describing a place, you need to use your five senses. just consider :

• What you see
• What you hear
• How it smells
• The taste
• How it feels like

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

2. CREATIVE WRITING

IMAGINATIVE COMPOSITIONS

Elements of Imaginative Compositions

In order to write a good story, use these important elements:

1. a) Characters: Refers to those who act in the story. They should be people, animals or objects that think and talk.
2. b) Setting: Describes time and place of the story for example: classroom, lakeside, town etc.
3. c) Plot: Refers to the series of actions that the characters go through as they try to solve a problem. In the plot, we have the:

1. Introduction: This is usually short. It presents the character, the situation or the problem, and part of the setting.
2. Development: This simply shows how the situation affects the characters and what they do to try and solve the problem.
3. Conclusion: This shows the solution of a problem. It is usually short. It may lead to a happy, sad or surprise ending.

When writing a story, remember to organise the flow of your events so that the reader’s interest is maintained throughout the story. The element of suspense should also be created and maintained so that the reader will want to find out what is most likely to happen in your story.

You can create suspense by:

1. Including mystery
2. Changing the scene
3. Creating unexpected events
4. Including dialogue
5. Giving surprise ending
6. Moving from one character to another

 

 

 

 

 

 

3. INSTITUTIONAL WRITING

• Business Letters
• Usually from one organization/company/institution to another, or between such and their customers and other external parties.
• A business letter is any letter with two addresses, salutation, RE, and ends with a sinature, and whose contents are professional in nature.
• It is more formal than personal letters.
• You must have the formatting down.
• Some types of business letters are:
• Sales letters
• Order letters – sent by consumers or businesses to manufacturers, retailers or wholesalers to order goods and services. The contents include quantity, name, etc of the product.
• Complaint letters – use a tone that will make your complaint be satisfied.
• Inquiry letters. Written to elicit information from the recipient.
• Letters of Recommendation. Usually written by previous employer describing the sender’s relationship with and opinion of the job seeker.
• Others include: cover letters, acknowledgment letters, letters of resignation, follow-up letters, and adjustment letters.

Business Letters Format

• There are two layouts of business letters: Block and Indented layouts.
• When you choose to use block layout, all the information is written flush left.
• Provide your address first.
• Then skip one line and provide the date.
• Skip one more line and provide the inside address of the addressee.
• Note that when using letterhead, there is no need of writing your address. Only begin with the date.
• Skip yet another line and write salutation. This is followed by a colon. Comma is used for personal correspondence.
• Write “RE” and write the subject.
• Write the body. Skip lines between the paragraphs.
• After the body, write complementary close, followed by a comma, sign, then type your name and title(only if applicable)
• When you choose to use indented layout:
• Your address appears on the right.
• Date on the right.
• Addressee’s address, salutation on the left.
• Typing do not start from the flush left.
• No skipping lines between paragraphs.
• Type the closing and signature in the center.

Note: Block format looks professional.

Sample Business Letter

Kamato Academy, P.O. Box 789 – 20100, OGONGO – KENYA   January 3rd , 2016   The Director Kamato Academy P.O. B ox 789 – 20100 OGONGO – KENYA   Dear Ms Jane:   RE: RESIGNATION FROM KAMATO ACADEMY   I am writing to provide formal notice of my resignation from Kamato Academy. My last day will be 31st January this year.   I trust four weeks is sufficient notice for you to find a replacement for my position. I would be pleased to help train the person you choose to take my place before I finally leave.   Thank you for offering me the job for the past two years. My experience as a teacher, head of various departments and patron of clubs and societies here has been positive and I am confident that I will use most of the skills I have learnt at Kamato Academy in future.   If you have any concerns, please let me know. I will be more willing to listen to you.   All the best,   [sign] D’Matteo Kichapo TEACHER ASSISTANT

 

Kipchoge Muslims School P.O. Box  567 – 30300 WAJIR KENYA   July, 13th 2016   Manager, Leakey Village Inn P.O. Box 1234 – 103450 Kirema – Kenya   Dear Sir, Reservation of Rooms for Motivational Camp I am writing on behalf of the Scouts Club of Kipchoge Muslims School. We are organizing a two-day-one-night motivational camp and have selected your hotel as the venue for the camp. The tentative dates for the camp are 23 and 24 August 2016. We would like to know if you will be able to accommodate us for the period. Altogether, there will be forty students and four teachers on this trip. We will need two rooms for the teachers (twin sharing). For the students we would need fourteen rooms only (twin sharing as well). Please include an extra bed in each room to accommodate a third person. We plan to arrive at 2 o’clock in the afternoon of Friday 3 August. We hope you will be able to serve some light refreshments. We will begin our program at 4 p.m. We will require the use of a conference room that can accommodate 40 people. We would like a microphone, projector and screen, a stage and a rostrum. Since the students will be working in groups, we would like eight tables arranged in two rows. We also hope that water can be made available in the room at all times so that students can have a drink right there and do not have to leave the room too often. Regarding meals, we expect to have dinner at 7 p.m., breakfast at 7 a.m., the next morning and lunch at 11 a.m., just prior to our departure. We hope to be able to check out by midday on Saturday 4 August. We would like to know your rates for students, and whether you have a special rate for group bookings. Also, what are your charges for the use of the conference room and the equipment? Please let us know if payment can be made by credit card or cheque. We look forward to hearing from you soon. Please contact us if you need us to furnish you with further details. Thank you. Yours faithfully,

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

• POSTERS
• A poster is any piece of printed paper designed to be attached to a vertical surface e.g. a wall.
• A poster is intended to convey message at the same time appeal to the audience.
• A poster can be professionally used for advertisements, announcements, or to share information.
• A poster can focus on topics like:
• Child labour
• Drug abuse
• Corruption
• Prostitution
• Domestic violence
• Road accident, etc.

 

How to Create Posters

• Find a good idea for a poster. You can focus on cars, sports, etc.
• Create an image or picture with a clearly inspiration point. If for example, talking about child labour, one can draw a child working in the fields, and being whipped.
• Balance between the picture and the writings.
• Emphasize the most important information. You can write them in different ink, or underline them.
• The picture/image and the writing should be within the borderline.
• Be concise.

Activity

Let  the students choose any of the topics above and design their posters in groups. Ensure there is a balance between the picture and the words. After they finish, allow them pin their posters on the wall.

Exercise

The habit of shirking assignments in your class has become rampant. You don’t like it and you want to design a poster to warn your classmates against it. Design that poster.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

• ADVERTISEMENTS
• Advertising is how a company/individual encourages people to buy their products, services or ideas.
• An advertisement (short form: ad)is anything that draws excellent attention towards these things.
• Ads appear on television, as well as radio, newspapers, magazines and as billboards in streets and cities.
• They try to get people to buy their products, by showing them the good rather than bad of their products.
• First impression is very important and there is usually no second chance at making a good first impression.
• An advertisement should catch the attention within seconds – if it doesn’t, then it is considered failed.
• It is crucial to showcase your product in a very clever way.

How to Create an Advertisement

• Grab the attention of the audience by coming up with a tagline that is catchy. You can consider using:
• Humour
• Thyme
• Puns
• Metaphor
• Alliteration, etc
• Type the name of the business.
• Have a picture to reinforce your message.
• Balance between the picture and the wordings.

Activity

Let the students design their own adverts. They can advertise things like;

• New books
• New brand of pen
• Anything

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

4. PERSONAL WRITING

• PERSONAL JOURNALS
• A personal journal is a record of individual’s impression of a given event, occurrence or a person.
• Record what strikes you the most.
• What you record could have happened to you or to others.

Contents of A Personal Journal

1. Date
2. Day
3. At times, the calendar
4. Entry

Sample Personal Journal

MY PERSONAL JOURNAL   Calendar February, 2016 Sun Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri Sat 1     2        3     4     5     6 7        8     9       10   11   12   13 14      15   16      17    18  19   20 21      22   23      24    25  26   27 28 (circle/underline the date)   ENTRY Today was particularly my best in the month of February, in fact from January. Can you believe Tom, of all the form two students, has been appointed the new class prefect. This has marked the end of bad news and opened the door to fortunes. I will do all I can to improve that class!   I had never given it thought until I was told my name had been mentioned by the deputy principal. It was my friend, Huggies who told me it was me and not any other Tom. Of course I am the only Tom in that great class. I must express my happiness at this. A small, small class prefect in a big, big classroom.   My happiness cannot allow me write more than I have written, my dear journal. Let the rest be said tomorrow. Goodnight.

 

 

 

• SHOPPING LISTS
• A shopper needs to write a list of all the items to be purchased.
• Written before a shopping trip to a shop, grocery, or supermarket.
• Writing a shopping list will help cut down on money wastage and time for thinking on what to buy while at the shopping center.

Contents of A Shopping List

• A shopping list contains the following:

1. A title must have what the shopping is intended for and the words “shopping list”.
2. Budgeted amount. Write how much you have at hand to do shopping. Don’t use more than what you have. Budget carefully. You can’t also remain with a certain amount. If you are left with too much from what you were to use, it will also mean you don’t know how to budget.
3. Item category. Items are normally put under different categories. It is a good idea to group related items together for ease in shopping. Items are categorized as;

• Snacks e.g. cake, chips, etc.
• Toiletries e.g. soap, toothpaste, tissue papers, etc.
• Foodstuff
• Drinks/beverages
• Electronics
• Clothing
• And others

4. Write items under the right category.
5. Write the type of item you want. Prices might also be different. If for example you want to buy juice, write the type you want, for instance, savanna, pineapple. Their prices vary.
6. Say how many or how much you need to buy. If a liquid use mililitres, litres etc. if solid, grams, kilograms, will do.
7. Price. The amount to be spent on each item is written in this column.
8. Total. Write the amount in total to spend. Never spend more than budgeted for.

 

• More creative individuals add to their shopping lists:
• Expected balance/change
• Where shopping to be done. For example: shopping to be done at Uchumi Supermarket.
• Who to do shopping, among other things.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Sample Shopping List

BACK TO SCHOOL SHOPPING LIST BUDGETTED AMOUNT: Sh. 6 100   NO ITEM CATEGORY ITEM QUANTITY DESCRIPTION PRICE IN KSH. 1 Stationery Exercise books Ruler Mathematical set Pens 8-200 pages 2 1 10 Crown Helix Oxford Bic 800 100 300 200 2 Clothing Blouse Skirt Cardigan Neck tie 1 1 1 1 Short sleeved Dark grey Indigo one Red stripped 500 500 600 200 3 Books Set Books 3 The River and the Source Betrayal in the City Mstahiki Meya 600   500   600   4 Drinks Soda Juice 3-1 Litre 2 L Coke Delmonte 300 300 5 Snacks Crackers Cookies Pretzel 50g 100 g 100 gm Cheez it Oreo Bold Gold 110 200 200 TOTAL 6010 Expected Balance:                                                                                                     Sh. 90

 

Exercise

You are form two class prefect. Your class is throwing the end of the year class party. Before this happens, there is contribution by all the class members. If the total amount raised is sh. 9 000 which you are supposed to budget for, prepare the shopping list of the item you would buy.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

5. SOCIAL WRITING

• INVITATIONS
• Sending invitations is the appropriate way to communicate to your guest what is it that you are celebrating and what the event is all about.
• There are two types of invitations:
• Informal invitations
• Formal invitations
• Invitations also take form of: invitation cards or invitation letters.
• Invitation Cards
• They are designed to invite individuals to various ceremonies and parties.
• When designing an invitation card remember to :
• Provide the name of the host for the party.
• Extend the invitation by choosing appropriate formal wording, such as, “request your presence” or less formal wording, such as “totally invites you”.
• Include honorifics (Dr./Mr./Ms/ etc.) before the guest’s name especially if formal.
• Answer the question “what?” Tell the guest what the event is for. Is it for birthday party, wedding party, birth of a new baby, fundraising etc. if, for example, it is a birthday party ensure you tell them who is it for and age the person is celebrating. By the same token, if it is graduation, tell them who it is for and mention the education milestone they completed. The purpose of the event is stated clearly.
• Be clear about the date and time of the event. Day of the week should also be included. Example Saturday, 16^th May 2016 at 4.00 pm.
• Be clear on the venue. Tell them where the party will be held. If the party is held off-site (not where is known to all), you can even give directions.
• Write “RSVP”. Under this, write the name of the people to be contacted and their contact details. You can write the phone number to allow them contact you so as to inform you ahead of time whether or not they will be attending. RSVP is French abbreviation for “respondez sil’vous plait” which simply means “please respond”.
• Give instructions to your recipients on for example, how to dress, or bring something, if to bring another guest, or any other thing to do.
• You can also include the teaser. Include something that will drive them to the party even before the actual day. You can mention things like drinks, dance, etc. These make them looking towards attending the party.
• Include simple but a picture that ties with the party. You can have a picture of a cake if birthday party.

 

 

 

 

 

Sample Invitation Card

Informal Invitation Card

Because you have believed in Them, Celebrated with them Loved and encouraged them,   We, Ruth Kimani and John Kimani Ask you to join us in honouring our Children   Jenifer Wanjiku And Joseph Njoroge   As they celebrate the beginning of Their adventures together On Saturday, January 11th , 2016 At 9.00 am   Ceremony followed by dinner, Drinks, and awkward but Enthusiastic dancing   RSVP: Mr. john Kimani            or       Ms Ruth Kimani Mobile: 0711111111                 Mobile: 0712121212

 

Formal Invitation Card

THE FAMILY OF MR AND MRS KAIMOSI                Calls for the contentment of  Dr/Pst/Mr/Mrs/Ms/Eng/ ……………………………………………..             Company             At the marriage of       Arsenal Chelsea and Migingo Island              On Saturday, the second of January; 2016 At half past 4.00 in the evening              At their Kasarani home Dress as you wish, dine as you like Dance as you please   RSVP: Mr. Kaimosi                               Mrs Kaimosi Email: kaimosi4@gmail.com       Phone: 0716602808

 

 

• INVITATION LETTERS
• An invitation letter, normally business, is written to invite people to various events, such as, seminars, conferences, and many other functions.
• It takes the format of other business letters.
• In an invitation letter one should include the details required. Only the pertinent information regarding the event should be included.
• They are written to invite:
• A resource person to school
• Teachers, students, etc to seminars, conferences, drama festivals, etc

Elements of  Invitation Letters

An invitation letter will include things like:

• Brief description of the institution/ organization. Let the recipient know what you do and to know whether you have the right to hold such an event.
• Include all the pertinent information.

Jehova Jireh School, P.O. Box 2345 – 30456, BETHLEHEM –PALESTINE.   February 6th, 2016   The Chairperson, NACADA, P.O. Box 966 – 40500 NEBUCHADNEZER – CANAAN.   Dear Mr. Herod:   RE: INVITATION TO GIVE A TALK ON DRUG ABUSE   On behalf of Environmental Club, Jehova Jire School, it is my pleasure to extend the invitation to our school parents’ day in the school refectory on Friday, 6th March, 2016 at 9.00 am. You are invited to give a talk on drug abuse.   Jehova School is one of the three schools in Bethlehem in which students have continued to abuse drugs. However, most of them are ready to respond to what they are told on dangers of hard drugs. Environmental club has been given the power to curb the use of such drugs.   I do hope you will be able to confirm your attendance to this invitation. We look forward to your presence at this big day.   Yours sincerely,   [sign] Abraham Father Luke – ENVIRONMENTAL CLUB CHAIR

 

 

6. PUBLIC WRITING

• TELEPHONE MESSAGES
• People who work in offices often answer phones for others especially in their absence.
• When you answer such calls, you need to take the messages for them.
• The telephone messages have the following elements:
• Name of the person the caller wanted to talk to.
• The name of the caller.
• Date and time of the call.
• Telephone number of the caller.
• Details of the message. Here you write something like: She called to ask whether you will attend the fundraising ceremony at Migingo Hotel.
• The name of the receiver of the call.
• Look at the telephone note pad below.

SUKUMA WIKI HIGH SCHOOL                                   TELEPHONE MESSAGE NOTE PAD DATE: ____________________________ TIME: __________________ AM/PM TO: ______________________________________ FROM: ____________________________________ TELEPHONE: ___________________________ Telephoned Please call Called to see you Will call again Wants to see you Returned your call   MESSAGE: ……………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………. ………………………………………………………………………………………………. ………………………………………………………………………………………………. RECEIVED BY: _________________________________________

 

Exercise

Your name is Elliot Kumo. As the youth leader in your ward, you have the responsibility of ensuring the garbage in your area are collected by the company known as Matakataka Chafu Garbage Collectors. One day they fail to do that and you decide to call the manager to complain about this and that they should bring the truck the next day to pick up the garbage. Unfortunately, the secretary called Amina Salim picks the call. In a telephone message note pad, write the message Amina will take.

 

 

 

 

Answer

MATAKATAKA CHAFU GARBAGE COLLECTORS TELEPHONE MESSAGE NOTE PADS DATE: 15TH January, 2016 TIME: 9.00 AM/PM TO: Makau Collins – Manager FROM: Elliot Kamau – Youth Leader, Kijiko Ward TELEPHONE: 254-720467987 Telephoned √ Please call Called to see you Will call again Wants to see you Returned your call   MESSAGE: He called to complain about the failure of garbage truck to pick up their garbage today. He is wondering whether the truck could stop tomorrow and pick it up.   RECEIVED BY: Amina Salim SECRETARY

 

• FILLING FORMS
• Filling forms might seem easy to majority of people but this is usually not the case.
• To fill the form as required, you need to consider the points below:
• Go through the whole form before you start filling it in.
• Read the instructions and ensure you understand them.
• Fill one section at a time to avoid confusion.
• Fill all the blanks unless stated for official use only.
• If there is a part

Sample Form

EMBE DODO MIXED SECONDARY SCHOOL           (Email: embdod@yahoo.com, phone: 071666666, Website: www.embedodo.go.ke)                                              ‘ Making future from the present’                                                STUDENT’S ADMISSION FORM INSTRUCTIONS TO STUDENTS 1.      Use black ink only. 2.      Fill all the blanks you are required to. 3.      Complete each section in BLOCK letters. (a)   Student’s Personal Details Student’s Name: ……………………………………………………………………… Date of Birth: ………………………………………………………………………….. Gender:    ………………………………… Religion: ………………………………….. Name and classes of brother(s)/sister(s) in school Sibling’s Name Sibling’s Class   (b)   Parent’s Details Parent/Guardian’s Name: ……………………………………………………………………………….. Profession: ……………………………………………………………. Address: …………………………………………………………… Mobile Number: …………………………………………………. (c)    Academic Details Class in which Admission is sought: …………………………………………………………………….. KCPE Marks: …………………………………………………………………….. Last Term Grade: …………………………………………………………….. (d)   Health Have you been diagnosed with cancer or HIV/AIDS? Yes/No If yes for how long ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Do you suffer from any heart disease? Yes/No (e)    Declaration I declare that what I have written here is the true and I am responsible for any eventuality that might result from this. Sign: ­______________________________ Name: ___________________________________________________ Date: ______________________________   (f)    For Official use only Qualified for admission: _________________________ Remarks: ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Signature of the officer: _________________________________________

 

• LETTERS OF APOLOGY
• We all make mistakes from time to time. When that happens, it is worthwhile that the situation be mended early.
• One way to mend the situation is by writing a letter apologizing for the wrong done.
• A letter of apology is written in order to:
• Lay out your mistakes clearly;
• Ask for forgiveness;
• Exhibit regret;
• Provide assurances for change; and
• Allow for building of relationships.
• When writing a letter of apology:
• Begin the letter by saying you are apologizing.
• Admit you were wrong and accept the responsibility.
• Offer a way you can help resolve the situation.
• Reassure the person that you will do your best to prevent the problem from occurring again.
• Tell the person you are looking forward to rebuilding the damaged relationship.
• Apologize again to close the letter.
• Be sincere.

How to Write Apology

STEP	EXPLANATION	EXAMPLE
	·        Say you are sorry	I am writing to apologize for coming late to school.
	·        Clearly state the problem. ·        Explain as much as you can what went wrong.	My brother was recently admitted at the hospital. This morning no one was left at home with my youngest sibling. She was crying and I had to first wait for any of my relatives to come.
	·        Try to solve the problem. ·        Give examples of how you can do this.	To mend this, I promise to come early from tomorrow. I will let my parents know that the next time they leave they should leave someone behind to babysit the child.
	·        Apologize again	Again, I am sorry for reporting late. I hope that we can put this issue behind us. I look forward to rebuilding the relationship.

 

 

 

 

Exercise

One of the school rules state: “ONLY English and Kiswahili are the official languages to use at school”. The school head of Languages department has caught you speaking in your mother tongue. Write him the letter, apologizing for your action.

Answer

KEMBOI HIGH SCHOOL P.O. BOX 434 – 30300 ELDORET – KENYA   14TH January, 2016   THE HEAD OF DEPARTMENT – LANGUAGES KEMBOI HIGH SCHOOL P.O. BOX 434 – 30300 ELDORET – KENYA   Dear Mr. Kipchoge:   RE: APOLOGY FOR SPEAKING IN MOTHER TONGUE   I am sorry for breaking one of the school rules.   I knew that speaking in mother tongue is prohibited at school, when I spoke it. I am deeply sorry for acting as though I am above the rules everyone should follow. It was impolite to both you and the other teachers.   I promise to obey all the school rules now that I have learnt that no one is above the school rules. It was inappropriate of me to speak the language not acceptable at school. I know that punishment meted on me is completely deserved.   Once again, I am sorry for my stupid behavior. I will from now on speak in the two official languages. I hope our differences have been put behind us and that our relationship remains undamaged. Yours Sincerely, [signature] Kimita Keino FORM 2 STUDENT