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F 3 GEOGRAPHY NOTES NEW SYLLABUS

F 3 GEOGRAPHY

STATISTICS                                                                       COMPOUND/CUMULATIVE/DIVIDED

BAR GRAPH

Major cash crops exported in Kenya in tonnes

CROP 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994
COFFEE 4500 5000 5200 6000 5900
TEA 1300 1100 2500 2100 2200
MAIZE 800 900 500 400 400
WHEAT 600 500 600 700 500

Steps

CROP 1990 CT 1991 CT 1992 CT 1993 CT 1994
COFFEE 4500 4500 5000 5000 5200 5200 6000 6000 5900
TEA 1300 5800 1100 6100 2500 7700 2100 8100 2200
MAIZE 800 6600 900 7000 500 8200 400 8500 400
WHEAT 600 7200 500 7500 600 8800 700 9200 500
TOTAL 7200 7500 8800 9200 9000
  1. Set cumulative totals for the data each year

 

  1. Draw vertical axis(Y) to represent dependent variable
  2. Draw horizontal axis(x) to represent independent variable
  3. Label both axis using suitable scale
  4. Plot the cumulative values for each year
  5. Use values for components to subdivide the cumulative bar
  6. The subdivisions are placed in descending order with the longest at the bottom(coffee)
  7. Shade each component differently
  8. Put title and key

Advantages

  1. Its easy to construct
  2. It has good visual impression
  3. There is easy comparison for the same component in different bars because of uniform shading
  4. Easy to interpret because bars are shaded differently
  5. Total value of the bar can be identified easily

 

Disadvantages

  1. It doesn’t show the trend of components (change over time).
  2. Cant be used to show many components as there is limited space upwards
  3. Tedious as there is a lot of calculation work involved.
  4. Not easy to trace individual contribution made by members of the same bar
  5. Poor choice of vertical scale causes exaggeration of bars length leading to wrong conclusions

 

                                       Analysis

PIECHART/DIVIDEDCIRCLES/CIRCLE CHARTS

Major countries producing commercial vehicles in the world in 000s

USA FRANCE JAPAN UK GERMANY RUSSIA
1800 240 2050 400 240 750

Steps

  1. Convert components into degrees

USA 1800×360/5480=118.2◦

FRANCE 240×360/5480=15.8◦

JAPAN 2050×360/5480=134.7◦

UK 400×360/5480=26.3◦

GERMANY 240×360/5480=15.8◦

RUSSIA 750×360/5480=49.3◦

  1. Draw a circle of convenient size using a pair of compasses.
  2. From the centre of the circle mark out each calculated angle using a protractor.
  3. Shade the sectors differently and provide the key for various shadings.

Advantages

  1. Gives a good/clear visual impression
  2. Easy to draw.
  3. Can be used to present varying types of data e.g. minerals, population, etc.
  4. Easy to read and interpret as segments are arranged in descending order and are also well shaded.
  5. Easy to compare individual segments.

Disadvantages

  1. Difficult to interpret if segments are many.
  2. Tedious due to a lot of mathematical calculations and marking out of angles involved.
  3. Can’t be used to show trend/change over a certain period.
  4. Small quantities or decimals may not be easily represented.

                                                       Analysis

  1. The main producer of commercial vehicles is Japan.
  2. The second largest producer is USA followed by Russia.
  3. The lowest producers were France and West Germany with.

                       PROPORTIONAL CIRCLES

This is use of circles of various sizes to represent different sets of statistical data.

Table showing mineral production In Kenya from year1998-2000

MINERALS QUANTITY IN TONNES
  1998 1999 2000
Graphite 200 490 930
Fluorspar 30 255 450
Soda ash 270 300 350
Diamond 500 870 1270
TOTAL 1000 1915 3000

Steps

  1. Determining the radii of circles by finding the square roots of the totals

1998 √1000=31.62=32

1999 √1915=43.76=44

2000 √3000=54.77=55

  1. Scale:1cm represents 10 tonnes

1998=3.2 cm

1999=4.4 cm

2000=5.5 cm

  1. Using a pair of compasses draw circles of different radii representing mineral production in Kenya between 1998 and 2000.
  2. Convert component values into degrees

Component value/  total value of data×360

1998: Graphite-200/1000×360=72◦

Fluorspar-30/1000×360=10.8◦

Soda ash-270/1000×360=97.2◦

Diamond-500/1000×360=180◦

1999: Graphite-490/1915×360=92.1◦

Fluorspar-255/1915×360=47.9◦

Soda ash-300/1915×360=56.4◦

Diamond-870/1915×360=163.6◦

2000: Graphite-930/3000×360=11.6◦

Fluorspar-450/3000×360=54◦

Soda ash-350/3000×360=42.1◦

Diamond-1270/3000×360=152.3◦

  1. On the proportional circle for each year use a protractor and mark out the angles
  2. Shade the segments and then provide a key.

Advantages

  1. They give a good visual impression.
  2. Easy to compare various components.
  3. Simple to construct.
  4. Easy to interpret as segments are arranged in descending order.
  5. Can be used to present varying types of data.

Disadvantages

  1. Tedious in calculation and measurement of angles
  2. Actual values represented by each component cant be known at a glance
  3. Difficult to accurately measure and draw sectors whose values are too small.
  4. Comparison can be difficult if the circles represent values which are almost equal.

Analysis/Conclusions

  1. Diamond was leading in production.
  2. The second leading mineral in production was graphite.
  3. The mineral with the lowest production was fluorspar.

 

 

 

 

                  

 

 

 

MAP WORK

Description of Relief

  1. Describe the general appearance of the entire area e.g. hilly, mountainous, plain, undulating landscape, has many hills, isolated hills, etc.
  2. State the highest and lowest parts of the area.
  3. Look out for valleys which are occupied by rivers.
  4. Divide into relief regions such as plateau, escarpment and lowland.
  5. Explain the type of slop e.g. gentle, steep, even or irregular.
  6. Direction of slope.
  7. Identify the land forms present in the area.

Gentle Slope

Slope is the gradient of land surface.

Gentle slope is one in which land doesn’t rise or fall steeply

Contours are wide apart

Steep Slopes

 

Even Slopes

 

Uneven Slopes

Convex Slopes

Concave Slopes

A Valley

A Spur

Interlocking Spurs

Truncated Spurs

Conical Hills

Irregular Shaped Hills

-A hill with some sides with uneven gentle and others with uneven steep slopes.

Ridges

A Col

A Pass

A Water Shed

Escarpment

A Plateau

Description of Vegetation

Natural vegetation is classified as woodlands, thickets, scrubs or grasslands.

Symbols are given as pictures of vegetation.

  1. Forests

Likely indications of the following in the area:

  1. Thickets and shrubs
  1. Riverine trees

Describing Drainage

Natural drainage features include lakes, rivers, swamps, sea, rapids, water falls, cataracts, springs, deltas, fjords, sand or mud, and bays

Artificial features include ponds, wells, boreholes, water holes, cattle dips, cattle troughs, canals, reservoirs, irrigation channels, aqueducts, water treatment plants and man made lakes.

  1. a) Permanent Rivers

Likely indication of:

  1. b) Seasonal Rivers

Likely indication of:

  1. c) Disappearing Rivers

Blue lines ending abruptly

Likely indication of:

 

-Drainage pattern is the layout of a river and its tributaries on the landscape.

  1. a) Dendritic

-Resembles a tree trunk and branches or veins of a leaf.

-Tributaries join the main river at acute angles.

  1. a) Trellis

Tributaries join the main river and other tributaries at right angles

of hard and soft rocks)

Common in folded areas where rivers flow downwards separated by vertical uplands.

  1. b) Rectangular Pattern

-Looks like a large block of rectangles.

-Tributaries tend to take sharp angular bends along their course.

  1. c) Parallel Pattern

-Rivers and tributaries flow virtually parallel to each other

Influenced by slope

-Common on slopes of high mountain ranges

  1. d) Centripetal Pattern

-Rivers flow from many directions into a central depression such as a lake, sea or swamp.

-Examples are rivers flowing into some of the Rift Valley lakes such as Nakuru and Bogoria.

  1. e) Annular Pattern

Streams (rivers which are small in size) are arranged in series of curves about a basin or crater

It’s controlled by the slope.

  1. f) Radial

-Resembles the spikes of a bicycle

-Formed by rivers which flow downwards from a central point in all directions such as on a volcanic cone e.g. on Mt. Kenya, Elgon and Kilimanjaro.

  1. g) Fault –Guided Pattern

Human/Economic Activities

Description of Human Activities

Agriculture

  1. a) Plantation farming

Evidenced by presence of:

-“C”-coffee

-Named estates e.g. Kaimosi tea estate

  1. b) Small scale crop farming

Livestock Farming

Mining

Forestry/Lumbering

Fishing

Manufacturing/Processing Industry

Services

  1. a) Trade
  1. b) Transport
  2. i) Land
  1. ii) Air

iii)  Water

  1. c) Communication
  1. d) Tourism
  1. e) Administration

Social Services

  1. a) Religious Services
  1. b) Education
  1. c) Health Services
  1. d) Recreational Services

Description of Settlement

A settlement is a place with housing units where people live together

  1. a) Rural settlements

Consist of villages and homesteads and homesteads in which people are involved in subsistence agriculture and traditional activities such as pottery weaving, curving, etc.

  1. b) Urban settlement

Consist of dense permanent and sometimes high buildings and population engaged in non agricultural activities such as industrial activities.

Factors Influencing Settlement

  1. Physical Factors
  2. a) Climate

Areas with moderate temps and adequate rainfall are densely settled while those with extremely low or high temps have fewer settlements.

  1. b) Relief

Terrain: Steep slopes are less settled due to thin soils and difficulty to erect buildings.

Aspect: Slopes facing away from the sun in high latitudes are less settled than those facing the sun.

Wind ward slopes of mountains on the path of rain bearing winds are more settled due to heavy rainfall making them ideal for agriculture.

  1. c) Drainage

Rivers and springs attract settlements because they provide clean water.

Areas with drainage swamps are less settled because it’s difficult to erect buildings and they also harbour mosquitoes and snails which cause diseases.

  1. d) Vegetation

Dense forests discourage settlements because of wild animals and also harbour disease vectors such as tsetse flies e.g. Miombo woodland of Tanzania and Lambwe valley in Kenya.

  1. e) Pests and diseases

Areas prone to pests and diseases are less settled because people like to live in healthy environment.

  1. f) Natural resources

Settlements start where there is mineral extraction. e.g. Magadi

Lakes with abundant fish may also attract settlement.

  1. g) Human Factors
  2. i) Political factors
  1. ii) Historical factors

iii) Cultural factors

iii) Economic factors

 

Types of Settlements Patterns

  1. Nucleated/Clustered Settlement Pattern

                                       Factors

 

  1. b) Linear Settlement
  1. c) Dispersed/Scattered Settlement

 

  1. d) Radial Pattern

Buildings are arranged like a star

-Common at cross roads where housing units point in all directions.

Enlargement and Reduction of Maps

Steps

  1. Identify the area requiring to be enlarged
  2. Measure its length and width
  3. Multiply (E) or divide (R) the by the number of times given. The scale also changes e.g.1:50000/2(enlarged)×2(reduced)
  4. Draw the new frame with new dimensions
  5. Insert the grid squares e.g. 2×2cm, 2/2, etc.
  6. Draw diagonals on the frame
  7. Transfer features exactly where they were

Drawing a Cross Section/Profile

-Line drawn on a piece of paper showing the nature of relief of a particular area.

Steps

  1. Identify the given points and name them A and B
  2. Joint point A and B using a pencil
  3. Take a piece of paper and fold it into two parts
  4. Place the papers edge along the line joining A and B
  5. Mark all contours and their heights
  6. Mark features along A-B e.g. R- river, H- hill, M- mountain
  7. Determine the highest and lowest contour height to determine the appropriate vertical scale
  8. Draw horizontal axis and mark it A-B
  9. Draw vertical axis from A to B
  10. Place the edge of folded paper along horizontal axis
  11. Use values along vertical axis to plot contour heights. Remember to show features marked along A-B
  12. Join plotted points using smooth curve (cross

Section)

  1. Include title on top vertical and horizontal map scale.

Calculation and Interpretation of Vertical Exaggeration and Gradient

Vertical Exaggeration

Number of times that the vertical scale is larger than horizontal scale

V.E. =Denominator of H.S. /D. of V.S. (cross section scale.

e.g. V.S. =1:20M

H.S=1:50000

 

V.E.=50000/20×100 (To convert into cm) =25

Interpretation

The vertical height has been exaggerated 25 times compared to the horizontal distance

Intervisibility

Ability of one place to be seen from another

Steps

 

Gradient

Degree of steepness of a slope between two given points

STEPS

  1. Identify the two points
  2. Calculate difference in height between the two points(Vertical Interval) e.g. 500m
  3. Joint them with a light line
  4. Measure ground distance between the two points(Horizontal Equivalent)e.g.12 cm

G=V.I./H.E.

=500×100/12×50000=50000/600000=1/12=1:12

Interpretation

For every 12 m travelled on the Ground, there is a vertical rise of 1m

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

EXTERNAL LAND FORMING PROCESSES

These are:

  1. weathering
  2. mass wasting
  3. erosion
  4. transportation
  5. deposition

Weathering

Agents of weathering

-Things that work to cause it:

  1. Weather elements:
  1. Plants
  2. Animals
  3. People

Factors That Influence Weathering

Climate

Biological organisms

Types of Weathering

  1. Mechanical Weathering

Processes

  1. a) Block Disintegration/Separation
  1. b) Exfoliation
  1. c) Granular Disintegration
  1. d) Pressure Release/Sheeting/Unloading
  1. e) Frost Action
  1. f) Crystal Growth
  1. g) Slaking/Rain Water Action
  1. Chemical Weathering

Processes

  1. a) Solution
  1. b) Carbonation

H2O+CO2àH2CO3

CACO3+H2CO3àCA (HCO3)

  1. c) Hydrolysis
  1. d) Oxidation
  1. e) Hydration
  1. Biological Weathering

-Weathering of rocks due to action of living organisms on them.

  1. a) Action of plants

Mechanical

Chemical

  1. Plants rot on rock in the presence of moisture and produce organic acid
  2. It reacts with some minerals within the rock causing decay.
  3. Animals excrete on rocks and release chemical substances which react with some minerals in rocks causing them to break up.
  4. Chemical substances released from the industries to rivers cause the water to act on rocks over which it flows.
  5. Gases such as CO2 emitted from motor vehicles and industries are
  6. Absorbed by rain and acids such as carbonic or sulphurous which react with minerals causing rock to decay.

Significance of Weathering

Positive

  1. Leads to soil formation which is important for agriculture.
  2. Produces other natural resources such as clay used in pottery, brick making, etc.
  3. Weathered rocks form beautiful scenery for tourist attraction e.g. Hells Gate and crying stones of Kakamega.
  4. Weakens rocks easing their exploitation by quarrying and mining

Negative

MASS WASTING

Factors Influencing Mass Wasting

  1. a) Degree of slope
  1. b) Climate
  1. c) Nature of the material

Vegetation

Tectonic movements

Human activities

Types of Mass Wasting

  1. Slow Mass Wasting

Processes

  1. a) Soil Creep

Causes

  1. b) Solifluction
  1. c) Talus Creep
  1. d) Rock Creep
  1. Rapid Mass Wasting
  1. a) Mud Flow
  1. b) Earth Flow
  1. c) Land Slide
  1. d) Slump
  1. e) Debris Slide
  1. f) Debris fall
  1. g) Rock Slide
  1. h) Rock fall
  1. h) Avalanche

 

  1. i) Rain Wash

Types

  1. a) Sheet wash
  1. b) Gulleying
  1. Splash erosion

Effects of Mass Wasting On Physical and Human Environment

Positive

  1. Make the soil to become fertile where soil from fertile areas is deposited.
  2. Leads to formation of new land forms such as scars, depressions, lakes, rock pillars, etc.

Negative

  1. Soil creep may destroy walls built across the slope when creeping soil exerts pressure on them.
  2. Decrease soil fertility where fertile soil moves down slope.
  3. Makes the ground prone to soil erosion especially where scars have formed.
  4. Hinders transport and communication by blocking railway lines making maintenance to be costly.
  5. Hinders mechanisation of agriculture e.g. gulleying does not allow movement of vehicles and machinery on farms.
  6. Leads to destruction of property and loss of live by burying people in their houses and stones falling on escarpments along roads causing accidents.
  7. May Cause Rivers to change their courses e.g. mud flow.

 

 

 

 

HYDROLOGICAL/WATER CYCLE

Processes in Which Circulation Is Carried Out

  1. Evaporation
    • Changing of water into water into water vapour when it’s heated by solar radiation.
    • Evapotranspiration: Combined loss of water from the soil through direct evaporation and transpiration by plants.
  2. Cooling
  1. Condensation
  1. Precipitation

-The process in which the earth receives moisture from the atmosphere.

It occurs when droplets formed by condensation combine forming heavier drops which fall on the ground as rain or may become frozen to form snow, hail, sleet, etc.

  1. Surface runoff
  1. Infiltration
  1. Percolation
  1. Overland flow

Surface runoff makes the overland flow.

River water flows back to the oceans where evaporation takes place again and water cycle is repeated.

Significance of Hydrolological Cycle

Positive

  1. Provides water to man from precipitation and underground water.
  2. Provides rain to man who is useful in agriculture.
  3. Atmospheric water is important in regulating heat loss from the earth by absorbing terrestrial radiation and reflecting it back to the earth keeping the lower atmosphere warm.

Negative

  1. May lead to shortage of water when evaporation rate exceeds precipitation.
  2. May lead to decreased agricultural production as a result of excessive evaporation causing weathering of crops.
  3. May lead to flooding when excessive evaporation cause increased rainfall.
  4. May lead to shortage of rainfall if there is less evaporation due to low temperature.

ACTION OF RIVERS

A river is a mass of water flowing over the land in a definite channel.

Work of a River

  1. Drain excess water from the land.
  2. Sculpturing land through erosion, transportation and transportation.

River Erosion

Factors Influencing River Erosion

  1. River volume
  1. Slope of land
  1. Rivers load
  1. Nature of bed rock

Processes/Ways of river erosion

  1. 1. Solution/Corrosion
  1. 2. Hydraulic Action
  1. Abrasion/Corrasion
  1. Attrition

Types of River Erosion

  1. Vertical Erosion
  1. Lateral Erosion
  1. Headward Erosion
  1. Where there is a water fall.
  1. Where gulleying or soil creep occurs where there is a spring causing its position to shift upstream (spring sapping).

Resultant Features of River Erosion

  1. Stream Cut Valleys
    • Valleys with V, open V or U shaped cross sections along the river channel.
  1. Gorges

Ways/modes of formation

  1. Where a river flows along a fault or a section of soft rocks eroding the channel vertically through the soft rocks or fault.
  2. By headward erosion at a water fall when the river’s erosive activity is increased due to increased gradient causing the river to undercut at the base of the water fall, then the rock above the undercut base collapses causing the waterfall to shift upstream resulting in a gorge below the water fall.
  3. Where a river flows across a plateau with alternating horizontal layers of hard and soft rocks eroding them resulting in a gorge with stepped sides called a canyon e.g. Grand canyon on R. Colorado in USA.
  4. Due to river rejuvenation when the river’s erosive activity is renewed causing the river to vigorously erode deep into its channel.
  5. Where a river maintains its course across land which is being uplifted gradually.

Rapids

                                     How they are formed

  1. Where a less hard rock lies below a soft rock and the soft rock is eroded more resulting in a steep slope.
  2. Where a water fall has been eroded by headward erosion reducing its height.
  3. c) Where resistant rock dips down stream and is unevenly eroded.

Water Falls

Formation

  1. Where a river descends over a sharp edge of a plateau encountering a sharp drop.
  2. Where a river descends a cliff into the sea.
  3. Where a river descends a fault scarp.
  4. Where a river descends a sharp edge of a plateau.
  5. Where a river is blocked by lava flow causing water to accumulate on the upstream side and a water fall forms at the point of overflow.
  6. Where a resistant rock lies across a river with a less resistant one on the downstream side and the less resistant one is eroded faster causing a rapid to be first formed, then a waterfall.

Pot Holes

Interlocking Spurs

Formation

River Transportation

Factors Influencing River Transportation

  1. a) Rivers Volume

A river with large volume of water has more energy and therefore greater carrying ability than one with a small volume.

  1. b) Gradient

A river flowing on a steep channel has greater ability to transport than one on a gentle slope because it flows fast due to gravity.

  1. c) Rivers Load

Processes/ways of River Transportation

  1. a) Suspension
  1. b) Saltation/Hydraulic Lift
  1. c) Traction
  1. d) Solution

Load transported by suspension, Saltation and traction is called clastic load while that by solution is called dissolved load.

Deposition

Factors Influencing Deposition

  1. a) Gradient

When gradient reduces the river’s speed decreases and hence its energy is reduced causing it to drop some of the heavy load.

  1. b) Rivers Volume

When rivers volume decreases its energy also decreases causing it to deposit heaviest load then lighter ones.

  1. c) Obstacles

Obstacles such as swamp vegetation and rock outcrop reduce the river’s speed and also trap some of the load thereby facilitating deposition.

  1. d) River Bed Width and Depth

Where a rivers channel becomes wide and shallow there is less water per unit area and hence the river has lower capacity to transport so deposition of excess load begins.

Resultant Features of River Deposition

  1. a) Alluvial Fans and Bajadas

Formation

  1. b) Meanders and Oxbow Lakes

Meanders are loop-like bends in a rivers course.

Oxbow lake is a horse shoe shaped section of a former river.

Formation

Flood Plains

Formation

River Braids

Factors favouring formation of braids

  1. River must be carrying large load.
  2. Reduced gradient on the section.
  3. Reduced amount of water such as in dry season or arid conditions.
  4. Presence of obstacles such as rock out crops.

Formation

 

 

 

Natural Levees

Formation

Effects of Levee Formation

  1. Creation of differed tributaries and confluences.

Differed tributary: Tributary blocked from joining the main river by levees.

Differed confluence: New point where the differed tributary joins the main river downstream.

  1. Destructive flooding.

Estuaries

Deltas

Ideal Conditions for Formation of A Delta At A Rivers Mouth

  1. Large load such as from a large catchment area where erosion is taking place actively.
  2. The rivers course to be free from obstacles such as swamps so as not to filter sediments before they reach the mouth.
  3. Low speed at the point where the river is entering a sea or lake for deposition to take place.
  4. The rate of deposition should be higher than the rate of erosion by sea or lake currents.

How a Delta Forms

Types of Deltas

  1. Marine: Type formed at sea.
  2. Lacustrine: at a lake.
  3. Inland Delta: Deltas which form along a rivers course before it reaches the lake or sea.

Formation

  1. Arcuate Delta
  1. Birds Foot Delta
  1. Estuarine Delta

Formation

Development of a River Profile

  1. Youthful/ Torrent Stage

Characteristics

  1. Steep gradient.
  2. The river flows very fast.
  3. Vertical erosion is dominant
  4. Headward erosion is evident.

                                                    Features

  1. V- shaped valleys
  2. Waterfalls
  3. Rapids
  4. Potholes
  5. Gorges
  6. Interlocking spurs.
  7. Mature/ Valley Stage

Characteristics

  1. Low and almost regular gradient.
  2. The flow is less swift.
  3. The river is wider due to being joined by tributaries.
  4. Lateral and vertical erosion but lateral is more active.
  5. Deposition starts at some sections.

Features

  1. Wider open v-shaped valley
  2. Meanders
  3. River bluffs/cliffs
  4. Slip off slopes

 

  1. Old/ Plain Stage

Characteristics

  1. Very gentle/almost level gradient.
  2. Very slow flow of river.
  3. The main work of the river is deposition.
  4. Some lateral erosion occurs.
  5. Seasonal floods are common.

Features

  1. Shallow broad flat bottomed u-shaped valley.
  2. Meanders
  3. Oxbow lakes
  4. Natural levees
  5. Differed tributaries
  6. Differed confluences
  7. Braided channels
  8. Flood plains
  9. Deltas
  10. Distributaries

River Capture/Beheading/Piracy/Abstraction

The river that captures is called pirate.

The captured one is called victim.

How it occurs

The remaining section of the beheaded river is called a misfit/beheaded river.

The dry valley between the elbow of capture and the new course of the misfit stream is called a wind gap.

 

River Rejuvenation

Causes

  1. Change in the Base Level

Base level is the lowest level to which a river can erode its bed.

Rejuvenation resulting is called dynamic rejuvenation

  1. Drop in sea level
    • The river mouth moves further seawards.
    • A steep gradient occurs between the old and the new mouths causing the river to starts to move swiftly.
    • Vertical erosion resumes extending back to the flood plain.
  2. Uplift of a section of land along the rivers course.
  1. Unequal sinking of land along a rivers course.
  1. Increase in Rivers Discharge

Rejuvenation resulting is called static rejuvenation

  1. Change in Rock Structure

Features of River Rejuvenation

  1. Knick Points
  1. River Terraces
  1. Water Falls

-Are formed when knick points are deepened e.g. Charlotte falls in Sierra Leone.

  1. Antecedent Gorges
  1. Incised Meanders

Types

  1. a) Entrenched Meanders
  1. b) Ingrown Meanders
  1. Abandoned Meanders

Drainage Systems

Types

  1. 1. Accordant Drainage System
  1. 2. Discordant Drainage System

Types

  1. a) Antecedent Drainage System
  1. b) Superimposed Drainage System
  1. Back Tilted/Reversed Drainage System

Significance of Rivers and Their Features

Positive

  1. Rivers are sources of water for domestic and industrial use.
  2. Rivers water is used for irrigation.
  3. They provide port facilities where they have rias and estuaries.
  4. Some rivers are used for transportation e.g. R. Congo and Nile.
  5. Some rivers are fishing grounds e.g. Tana.
  6. Rivers are dammed and used for H.E.P generation.
  7. Features formed by river action such as waterfalls, gorges and oxbow lakes are a tourist attraction.

Negative

  1. Rivers flood causing loss of life and property.
  2. Rivers may lead to drowning accidents especially when they are flooded.
  3. River water can be a medium of spreading diseases such as bilhazia and malaria.
  4. Some wide rivers are barriers to transport and communication.
  5. Some rivers also harbour dangerous wild animals which can kill humans e.g. crocodiles, hippos and snakes.

                  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

LAKES

A lake is a depression on the earth’s surface where water has accumulated.

Classification /Types of Lakes

According To the Nature of Water

  1. Fresh water lakes which contain fresh water.
  2. Salty lakes which have salty water.

According To the Mode of Formation of Depression They Occupy

  1. by Earth or Tectonic Movements
  2. a) Faulted or Rift Valley Lakes
  1. b) Down Warped and Tilted Lakes

 

Playas/sebkha is a lake contained in an inland drainage basin in a desert formed when rain or flood water flows into a basin formed by crustal warping e.g. Chemchane Sebkha in Mauritania.

  1. by Vulcanicity
  2. i) Crater Lakes

 

  1. ii) Lava Dammed Lakes
  1. by Erosion
  2. a) Glacial Erosion

(i) Corrie/Tarn Lakes

(ii) Ribbon Lakes

 

 

  1. b) Wind Erosion

Water oozes from the water table into the hollow or water from flash floods may accumulate in it to form temporary lakes called pans e.g. in Quattara depression between Egypt and Libya and Etosha pan in Namib.

  1. c) Solution Lakes
  1. by Deposition
  2. a) River Deposition
  1. b) Wave Deposition
  1. by Man
  2. a) Dams are Lakes formed when water accumulates behind dams constructed across rivers resulting into a large man made reservoir called man made lake e.g. behind Seven Forks Dam and Lakes Volta in Ghana and Nasser in Egypt.
  3. b) Barrage is a bank of earth or stones built across a river to provide water for farming.

Significance of Lakes

Positive

  1. Fresh water lakes provide water for domestic and industrial use.
  2. Fresh water lakes also provide water for irrigation e.g. Naivasha for horticultural farms around it.
  3. Man made lakes and some other lakes e.g. Victoria (Owen falls) are used for generation of H.E.P.
  4. Lakes are used for transport.
  5. Some lakes contain valuable minerals e.g. trona at L. Magadi and salt at L. Katwe in Uganda.
  6. Many lakes have fish which is a source of food and employment to fishermen and traders.
  7. Lakes are also a tourist attraction by providing recreational facilities and being habitats for wildlife.
  8. Some lakes are sources of rivers e.g. Victoria for White Nile and L.Tana for Blue Nile.
  9. Lakes modify the climate of surrounding areas by sea breezes and convectional rainfall.

                                      Negative

  1. Lakes are habitats for disease vectors e.g. mosquitoes and snails which transmit Malaria and bilhazia.
  2. Lakes may cause flooding due to excessive rainfall or when dams break leading to loss of life and property.
  3. Lakes are habitats for dangerous animals like crocodiles, hippos and snakes which kill humans.
  4. Lakes cause drowning accidents to people in time of storms.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

OCEANS, SEAS AND THEIR COASTS

An ocean is a large and extensive body of saline water occupying a basin between continents while a sea is a large body of saline water on the margins of continents.

Nature of Ocean Water

  1. Ocean water is salty
  1. Surface water is warmer than that at the bottom except in Polar Regions where a thin layer of cold water may overlie warmer water.
  2. Ocean water is a habitat for living organisms

Planktons are plants and animals occupying ocean surface.

  1. a) Phytoplankton are ocean plants e.g. algae.
  2. b) Zooplankton are ocean animals e.g. lobsters, jelly fish, crabs, etc.

Types

  1. Nektons are all forms of fish.
  2. Benthos are ocean creatures which live only at the bottom of margins of continents where sunlight reaches Sea floor e.g. snails, starfish and sea anemones.
  3. Ocean water is pollutedg. by industrial effluents, pesticides and herbicides carried by rivers and runoff to the sea.
  4. Ocean topography is composed of several features
  5. Continental shelf- Relatively flat part of the continent covered by ocean water.
  6. Continental slope- Steeply dipping surface between continental shelf and the ocean basin proper.
  7. Abbysal plain- Almost level area of the ocean where sediments are deposited.
  8. Mid ocean ridges- Range of hills which are submerged formed by volcanic and seismic activities.
  9. Sea Islands– pieces of land surrounded by water.
  10. i) Continental islandsOnes rising from continental shelf.
  11. ii) Oceanic islandsOnes which rise from the sea floor e.g. Canary and Cape Verde.

iii) Coral islands-Ones made of coral.

  1. Deep sea trenches – narrow steep sided submarine valleys on the ocean floor.
  2. Guyots– submerged atolls forming an under water mountain.
  3. Sea mount– a volcano which doesn’t rise above the sea floor.
  4. A portion of ocean water moves

There are two types of movements namely:

Vertical Movements

How they occur

  1. Cold polar water sinking before moving horizontally towards equator.
  2. Ocean currents converge
  3. When ocean water sinks at lower depths after ocean currents converge.
  4. When ocean water rises to the surface in a process called upwelling.

Significance of vertical movements

  1. i) Carries nutrients for sea animals by upwelling.
  2. ii) Oxygenation of water vital for fish survival.

Horizontal Movements

It occurs in the following ways:

  1. Ocean Currents

An ocean current is a large mass of surface ocean water which is moving in a particular direction e.g.

Factors that influencing formation of ocean currents

  1. Wind by blowing over water causing a mass of surface ocean water to move in its direction forming drift currents.
  2. Rotation of the earth by causing deflection of ocean currents.
  3. Shape of land mass by influencing current direction and causing it to flow following the coastal outline.
  4. Differences in temperature by causing cold polar water which is dense due to low temp moves towards the equator passing on the ocean floor and warm water of the tropics to move towards the poles passing on the surface.
  5. Tides

Rotation of the Earth

Tidal range is the difference between the highest level reached by high tide and lowest level reached by low tide.

Types of tides

  1. a) Spring Tides
  1. b) Neap Tides
  1. c) Perigian Tides
  1. d) Apogean Tides
  1. e) Diurnal Tides
  1. f) Semi Diurnal Tides
  1. g) Mixed Tides
  1. Waves

Parts of a wave

Crest – the top of a wave.

Trough – the bottom of a wave.

Wavelength – horizontal distance between two successive crests.

Height – difference in height between crest and trough.

Types of waves

  1. a) Constructive Waves
  1. b) Destructive Waves

Wave Erosion

Processes of Wave Erosion

  1. Abrasion
  1. c) Attrition
  1. d) Hydraulic Action
  1. i) Direct wave force
  1. ii) Compressed air action
  2. Waves crush against a rock.
  3. The force of water pushes air into cracks compressing it and exerting pressure causing them to widen.
  4. Wave retreats causing trapped air to expand resulting in sudden pressure release causing cracks to expand further.
  5. The process is repeated several times causing the rocks to shatter.
  6. e) Solution
  1. f) Corrosion

Factors influencing wave erosion

  1. a) Waves must have strong backwash and a weak swash
  2. b) Slope –The coast that slopes steeply into the sea favours erosion.
  3. c) Load-large amount provides more abrasive tools. Angular shaped load is more effective in abrasion.
  4. d) Amount of water in a wave – the larger the amount the greater the hydraulic force.

Features Resulting From Wave Erosion

  1. a) Cliff and Wave Cut Platform

Cliff – A steep rock face which borders the sea.

Wave Cut Platform – A fairly flat part of the shore formed when a cliff retreats inland.

 

 

  1. b) Bays and Headlands

Bay – Piece of sea water jutting into the land or a curved inlet of sea.

Headland – a piece of land jutting into the sea.

  1. c) Caves, Blow Hole and Geos

Cave – Natural cylindrical tunnel like chamber extending into the cliff or into the side of a headland.

Blow Hole/ Gloup – Vertical hole formed on the side of cliff bordering the land.

It’s called a blow hole because when the waves break water is forced out of the hole.                              

Geos – Narrow sea inlet formed when the roof of a cave between the blow hole and the sea collapses.

  1. d) Natural Arch, stack and stump

Natural arch – Opening from one side of a headland to the other.

Stack – Pillar of rock left standing on the seaward side.

Stump – The base of stack left when it collapses as a result of erosion at the base.

Wave Transportation

Types of load moved by waves are such as shingle, sand, mud and other objects dumped into the sea.

How the sea acquires its load

  1. Materials brought by rivers and wind.
  2. Products of erosion and weathering.
  3. Materials brought by rivers and wind.
  4. Debris from volcanic eruptions in the sea or on land bordering the sea.

Waves transport load by a process called long shore drift. Long shore drift is progressive dragging of materials along the beach as a result of waves breaking at an angle.

Factors Influencing Wave Transportation

  1. Strength of waves

Strong waves carry large quantities of load over a long distance while weak waves carry small quantities of load over a short distance.

  1. Tides

Tides cause waves to break farther inland causing materials that were not in contact with breaking waves to be moved about.

  1. Ocean currents

Ocean currents cause movement of materials from one part of the ocean to another e.g. coconut fruits from southern part of Africa to Gulf of Guinea by Benguela current.

  1. Gradient of the shore

On gentle coasts transportation of materials is favoured by long shore drift while on a steep coast they bounce off cliffs and remain floating.

  1. Orientation of coast line.

Transportation by long shore drift is favoured where coast is aligned obliquely to the direction of breaking waves while on transversely aligned coast swash moves materials back and fourth along the same line.

  1. Nature of the load.

Lighter materials such as sand are carried over long distances while heavy load is transported over a short distance.

Deposition

Factors Influencing Wave Deposition

  1. Load

Deposition occurs in selective manner:

  1. Waves

Waves must have a strong swash and a weak backwash in order to cause excess load to be left behind on the shore.

  1. gradient of the shore

The coast must be sloping to reduce the velocity and hence the energy of waves so that depositing occurs.

  1. Depth of Water

Deposition takes place where water is shallow for waves to come into contact with ocean floor and break the cyclic motion of water.

Features Resulting From Wave Deposition

  1. a) Beaches

During storms destructive waves destroy beaches creating other minor features such as:                           i) Beach cusps

  1. ii) Beach Ridges and Beach Berms

Beach Ridges – Low ridges of coarse sand, boulders and shingle deposited roughly parallel to the shore formed by waves approaching the coast at right angles.

iii) Beach Berms

  1. iv) Beach Rock Shells

Masses of sand, shells and pebbles cemented together by calcium carbonate forming projections above the beach.

 

  1. b) Spits
  1. c) Tombolo
  1. d) Bars

Types

  1. i) Bay bar – Bar which forms across the entrance of a bay.

Offshore bar – Bar which forms off a very shallow coast line.

  1. e) Cuspate foreland
  1. f) Dune Belts
  1. g) Mud Flats and Salt Marshes

Mudflats – Platform of mud consisting of fine silt and alluvium deposited in sea inlets such as bays and river estuaries.

Salt marshes – Vegetation such as grasses and mangrove that grows on a mudflat

Factors Determining the Type of Coasts

  1. Wave action

Wave erosion makes a coast to have erosion features while deposition causes depositional features.

  1. Tidal currents

Where tidal range is high more surface area is exposed to wave action.

  1. Nature of rocks

Weak rocks are eroded to form bays (inlets) while resistant ones are left standing to form headlands.

  1. Alignment of coast

There is more erosion on exposed coasts while deposition occurs where the coast is obliquely aligned to the breaking waves.

  1. Change in sea level

Fall in sea level leads to emergence and rise to submergence.

Types of Coasts

According To the Alignment of Coast

  1. discordant/transverse/irregular coast
  1. Concordant coasts/regular/longitudinal coasts

According To Features Present

  1. Submerged Coasts

Causes of submergence

  1. a) Rise in sea level e.g. when large quantities of melt water were released to the sea causing its level to rise due to climate change at the end of ice age.
    1. Sinking of coastal land and a part of the sea floor.

Types

  1. a) Submerged Highland Coasts
  1. i) Ria Coast

A Ria is a drowned river mouth.

Characteristics

  1. Funnel shaped
  2. U-shaped in cross section.
  3. Deeper and wider on the seaward side and shallower and narrower inland e.g. the Kenyan coast at Kilindini and Mtwapa.
  4. ii) Fiord/Fjord coast

A fiord is a submerged glaciated valley.

Characteristics

  1. Deeper inland.
  2. Shallower at the sea ward end due to terminal moraine deposited when glacier was melting.

iii) Longitudinal/Dalmatian Coasts

  1. b) Submerged Lowland Coasts

Types

  1. i) Estuarine Coast
  1. ii) Fjard Coast
  1. Emerged Coasts

Causes of Emergence

  1. Decrease in sea level due to decline in the source of water e.g. waters being held up in a glacier instead of it flowing back as rivers to the ocean.
  2. Uplift of the coastal land by faulting, folding or isostatic adjustment.

Types

  1. i) Emerged Highland Coasts
  1. ii) Emerged Lowland Coasts
  1. Coral Coasts

Conditions Necessary for Coral Growth

  1. warm water(25-29◦C)
  2. Saline and clear water.
  3. Sunlight should penetrate at least to a depth of 50m to allow plankton growth.
  4. Plentiful supply of plankton which they feed on.
  5. Shallow water.

Types of coral reefs

  1. i) Fringing Reefs

Characteristics

  1. Flat or concave shaped
  2. Higher on the seaward side
  3. Outer edge falls steeply into the sea
  4. ii) Barrier Reefs

Characteristics

  1. Its coral is joined to the shore.
  2. Its outer edge falls steeply into the sea.

iii) Atoll Reef

Characteristics

  1. Circular in shape.
  2. Encloses a fairly deep lagoon.

                              Theories of Formation

                      Darwin’s Theory

                                Murray’s Theory

                           Daly’s Theory

Significance of Oceans, Coasts and Coastal Features

Oceans

Positive

  1. Influence climate by contributing the bulk of precipitation, warming effect in cool season and cooling effect in hot season by breezes and ocean currents.
  2. Used for transport by means of boats, steamers and ferries.
  3. Tourist attraction by being site for recreation e.g. swimming and sport fishing and marine life in parks such as in Mombasa and Lamu.
  4. Oceans are a source of fish which is a source of food, income and employment.
  5. Source of fresh water when its water is distilled.
  6. Tropical seas have mangrove forests with mangrove trees which provide strong building and fencing posts and tannin for tanning leather and also habitat for marine life which is a tourist attraction.
  7. Source of salt which crystallizes naturally after water evaporates in constricted bays in hot climates.

Negative

  1. Tsunamis from oceans flood the neighbouring coastal areas causing great loss of life and property.
  2. Oceans may also flood the neighbouring coastal areas as a result of rise in sea level caused by melting of glaciers caused by global warming.
  3. Also harbour dangerous animals such as sharks and crocodiles which may attack and hurt or kill people.
  4. Drowning accidents when there is breakdown of vessels or ship wrecking.

Coasts and Coastal Features

Positive

  1. Fiords, rias and lagoons favour development of deep and well sheltered harbours.
  2. Fiords are also a good breeding ground for fish as their shallow continental shelf encourage growth of plankton which is food for fish.
  3. Coral rocks are used locally as building materials.
  4. Coral rocks are also a source of coral limestone for cement manufacture.
  5. Features such as coral reefs, caves, cliffs and fiords are a tourist attraction.

Negative

  1. Some emerged coastal lands have infertile soils unsuitable for agriculture for being covered by sand, gravel and bare rock.
  2. Deposited sands, bars and coral reefs are barrier to transport as they can cause ship wrecking if vessels hit them.

         

 

 

 

 

 

ACTION OF WINDAND WATER IN ARID AREAS

An arid area is a land which is deficient of moisture leading to scanty or no vegetation.

Action of Wind in Arid Areas

Wind Erosion

Physical weathering is the initial process then it’s followed by wind erosion.

Wind is more effective in tropical deserts due to:

  1. Presence of loose unconsolidated dry masses of mud, sand and gravel.
  2. Occurrence of strong tropical storms.
  3. Absence of vegetation leading to high wind velocity due to little frictional force.

Factors influencing wind erosion

  1. Wind speed– wind with high velocity has more energy to erode than with low velocity.
  2. Load– angular shaped load provide more effective abrasive tools than one which is round shaped.
  3. Nature of surface– Wind erosion is faster where the surface consists of unconsolidated materials.

Processes/Ways in Which Wind Erodes Deserts

  1. a) Abrasion
  1. b) Deflation
  1. c) Attrition

Resultant Features of Wind Erosion

  1. a) Millet seeds
  1. b) Ventifacts
  1. c) Mushroom Block
  1. d) Rock Pedestal
  1. e) Deflation Hollows
  1. f) Zeugen (Singular zeuge)
  1. g) Yardangs

Wind Transportation

Factors Influencing Wind Transportation and Deposition

Wind velocity: when speed decreases strength also decreases and its ability to transport so wind starts to deposit materials.

  1. Wind direction- Winds blowing from different direction converge and cause load to collide causing some of it to be deposited.
  2. Nature of desert surface:
  1. Obstacles- Objects such as rock masses, land forms and vegetation block and reduce wind speed causing deposition.
  2. Changes in weather conditions such as sudden showers halts transportation and causes deposition by washing down suspended materials.
  3. Load- Heavy load is deposited before light load when wind energy decreases. When many materials are transported by wind they collide causing each other to be deposited.

Processes/ Ways in Which Wind Transports Load

  1. i) Suspension
  1. ii) Saltation

iii) Surface Creep

-Wind transportation of heavy particles such as gravel and pebbles by pushing and rolling along the desert.

Resultant Features of Wind Deposition

  1. Sand Dunes

Dune – Low ridge of sand accumulated by wind deposition.

Types

  1. i) Barchans

Characteristics

  1. Crescent/moon shaped
  2. Smooth gentle windward slope
  3. Steep concave leeward slope
  4. Horns or 2 curved edges
  5. Occurs individually or in groups
  6. ii) Seif Dunes

iii) Transverse/Wake Dunes

  1. Drass
  1. Loess

Action of water in arid areas

 

 

Resultant Features of Water Action in Arid Areas

  1. a) Wadis

Characteristics

  1. b) Dry River Valleys
  1. c) Mesas and Buttes

Mesas Extensive table like residual hills found in arid areas.

Buttes – Smaller blocks of table like residual hills found in arid areas.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Features in an Inland Drainage Basin

  1. d) Playas/sebkha
  1. e) Peripediment
  1. f) Pediment
  2. g) Peneplain

Low level plain formed when pediments are eroded to form a low level plain.

  1. h) Pediplain
  1. i) Inselbergs

Types

 Bonhardt – Steep isolated round topped mass of rock rising steeply from desert surface.

 Castle kopje – Residual rocks in a desert found in groups.

Significance of Deserts and Desert Features

Positive

  1. Loess soils are used for agriculture because they are very fertile e.g. in Huang He valley and Ukraine.
  2. Loess soils in Europe and china have dug in caves which are inhabited during winter to provide warmth.
  3. Desert features are a tourist attraction e.g. rock pedestals, Yardangs, Zeugen and sand dunes.
  4. Oasis in deflation hollows are sources of water for domestic use.
  5. Oasis water is also used for irrigation such as of date palms.
  6. Deserts are good sites for testing military weapons, military training and experimenting ground for aircraft because they are sparsely populated.
  7. The scarce vegetation in deserts such as shrubs can be used in livestock keeping e.g. goats, camels etc.
  8. The hot sun in deserts can be harnessed to provide electricity for lighting, pumping of water, etc.
  9. Seasonal streams can be dammed to supply water to surrounding areas e.g. Kigombo dam in Mbororo in Taita which supplies water to Voi town.

Negative

  1. Some desert features can prevent physical development e.g. sand dunes can burry roads and it is difficult to construct bridges across wadis.
  2. Sand dunes can cover oasis and settlements.
  3. Sand dunes may destroy rich agricultural land.
  4. High temperatures, shortage of water, unreliable rainfall and lack of transport and communication infrastructure discourage settlement.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

UNDER/GROUND WATER

Sources of Ground Water

  1. a) Rain Water
  1. b) Melt Water
  1. c) Surface Water
  1. d) Magmatic/Plutonic Water

Factors Influencing Existence of Ground Water

  1. a) Precipitation
  1. b) Slope
  1. c) Nature of Rocks

Aquifer – permeable rock which is permanently saturated with water.

Permeable rocks – Rocks which allow water to pass through them.

Types

  1. a) Porous – Those with pores/airspaces between rock grains through which water passes e.g. sandstone, limestone and chalk.
  2. b) Pervious – Ones with cracks fractures and joints through which water enters and passes e.g. granite, limestone and chalk.

Impermeable rocks – Ones which don’t allow water to pass through them.

Types

  1. a) Aquifuge – Impenetrable impermeable rocks e.g. gabbro, shale and slate.
  2. b) Aquiclude – Porous rocks which absorb water and expand narrowing air spaces between grains preventing water to percolate downwards e.g. clay.
  3. d) Vegetation Cover
  1. e) Level of Saturation of Ground

Water Table

Zones of Saturation

  1. a) Zone of Non-saturation
  1. b) Zone of Intermittent Saturation

Temporary water table – Upper level of ground water in the zone of intermittent saturation.

  1. c) Zone Of Permanent Saturation

Permanent water table – Upper level of ground water in the zone of permanent saturation.

Presence of ground water leads to formation of springs, wells boreholes and artesian basins.

Springs

Place where water flows out naturally onto the earth’s surface along a slope.

Ways/Modes Formation

  1. a) Hillside Spring
  1. b) Dyke Spring

 

  1. c) Vauclusian Spring

 

  1. d) Valley Spring

                                                   Artesian Basins

                                                           Characteristics

  1. One or both ends are exposed on the surface on a rainy area or beneath a lake.
  2. Water enters at the exposed end or ends.
  3. With time the permeable rock is saturated with water and becomes an aquifer e.g. between Chad and Egypt across Quattara depression.

                                                       Artesian well

Well sunk into the aquifer of an artesian basin from which water will come out without being pumped.

Ideal Conditions for Formation of an Artesian Well

  1. Aquifer to be sandwiched between impermeable rocks to prevent evaporation and percolation.
  2. Aquifer to be exposed in a region which is a source of water e.g. rainy area or lake.
  3. Aquifer to dip from the region of water intake.
  4. Mouth of the well to be at a lower level than the intake area to develop hydraulic pressure which will force water out.

Problems Associated With Artesian Wells

  1. Water may be hot due to high temperatures.
  2. Water may be salty because of water taking long to percolate through rocks thus dissolving large quantities of mineral salts.
  3. Water may fail to come out naturally when water is drawn faster than it’s being replaced in the source region and necessitating pumping.

Significance of Underground Water

  1. Source of rivers and their tributaries.
  2. Source of water for domestic and industrial use e.g. wells, springs, boreholes and oasis.
  3. Used in agriculture e.g. oasis water is used for irrigation of date palms.
  4. Influences settlements due to the availability of water e.g. in deserts people settle near oasis and spring line settlements in limestone areas.
  5. Hot springs are a tourist attraction and their water is trapped and pumped into houses through pipes for heating during winter e.g. in Iceland.
  6. Underground streams help in keeping some lakes fresh e.g. L. Naivasha.

Action of Water in Limestone Lime stone Areas (Karst Region)

Karst region – Region where the surface and the ground is covered with limestone rocks.

Karst scenery – Unique features in a Karst region resulting from the action of water e.g. Shimoni caves at the coast of Kenya.

                       Factors Influencing Development of Karst Scenery

  1. Surface rock and the rock below should be hard and well jointed for acid water to percolate and cause solution to happen e.g. limestone, chalk or dolomite.
  2. Climate should be hot to speed chemical weathering and humid for availability of rain which is a solvent.
  3. Should have a lot of vegetation to release CO2.
  4. Water table to be far below the surface so that the whole limestone rock is not dissolved and underground features fail to be formed.

Surface Features in Limestone Areas

  1. a) Grikes and Clints

Clints – Blocks of limestone rock left standing when water infiltrates through the limestone rocks widening and deepening the joints.

Grikes – Deep groves or gullies formed when rainwater infiltrates through limestone rocks widening the joints by solution.

 

  1. b) Swallow/Sink Holes

 

  1. c) Dry Valley
  1. d) Karst Window
  1. e) Limestone Gorge
  1. f) Karst Bridge
  1. g) Dolines
  1.  h) Uvala
  1.  i) Polje

Underground Features in Limestone Areas

  1. a) Stalactites
  1. b) Stalactite
  1. c) Limestone Pillars
  1. d) Limestone caves

Significance of Karst Scenery

Positive

  1. Features in karst scenery are a tourist attraction e.g. caves, gorges, stalactites, stalagmites, etc.
  2. Limestone rock is used in the manufacture of cement e.g. cement factory at Bamburi in Mombasa and Athi River.
  3. Limestone blocks are also used for building.
  4. Limestone regions are very good for grazing particularly sheep because the surface is dry.
  5. Large villages called spring line settlements form at the line of vauclusian springs due to the availability of water.

Negative

  1. Limestone landscape discourages settlement because the surface is rocky, soils are thin and unsuitable for agriculture, surface is rugged with features like grikes and Clints and the water supply is inadequate due to rivers disappearing into swallow holes.

                              

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

GLACIATION

Glacier – Mass of ice moving outward from an area of accumulation.

Types

  1. Cirque glacier – ice occupying a cirque.
  2. Valley glacier – Ice confined within a valley
  3. Piedmont glacier: Glacier formed when valley glaciers converge at the foot of the mountain.

Ice bergs – Large mass of ice floating in the ocean formed when an ice sheet moves to the sea e.g. in Arctic and N. Atlantic Ocean.

Ice sheet – Continuous mass of ice covering a large area on the earth’s surface.

Ice caps – Ice covering the mountain peak.

Snow line – Line beyond which there is a permanent snow cover.

Ways of Ice Movement

  1. a) Plastic Flowage
  1. b) Basal Slip
  1. c) Extrusion Flow
  1. d) Internal Shearing

Factors Influencing Ice Movement

  1. a) Gradient of the Land

Ice moves faster on steep slopes than on gentle slopes due to the influence of gravity.

  1. b) Season

Ice movement is faster in summer due to frequent thawing melting compared to winter when thawing is rare.

  1. c) Friction

Central parts of ice move faster than sides and bottom which are in contact with rock beneath due to friction.

                                              

  1. d) Thickness of Ice

Thicker masses of ice cause more pressure between them and rocks beneath which cause slight melting and therefore faster movement.

Glacial Erosion

Processes/Ways in Which Ice Erodes

  1. a) Plucking
  1. b) Abrasion

Factors Influencing Glacial Erosion

  1. a) Nature of Underlying Rock
  1. b) Gradient of Slope
  1. c) Thickness of Ice
  1. d) Availability of Debris

Erosion Features

On Glaciated Highlands

  1. a) Cirque
  1.               b) Arêtes
    • Narrow knife- edged steep ridge separating two cirques.
    • Formed when two cirques cut backwards on adjacent sides of a mountain leaving a narrow steep ridge separating them.
  1. c) Pyramidal Peaks
  1. d) Glacial Trough

Glacial Trough and Related Features

  1. e) Truncated Spurs
    • Interlocking spurs of former river valleys which are eroded and straightened by valley glacier.

Erosion Features on Glaciated Lowlands

  1. a) Roche Mountonnee
  1. b) Crag and Tail

Crag – projection of resistant rock which protects a mass of softer rock on the downstream side of the glacier.

Tail – elongated feature on the downstream side of the crag formed by formed by material deposited by the glacier on the downstream side and the weaker rock.

  1. c) Depressional Lakes
    • Depressions filled with water from melting ice found in glaciated lowlands.
    • Formed when soft rocks are scooped out by moving ice sheet forming depressions which are filled with water to form a lake.

Glacial Deposition

Types of Moraine

  1. a) Ground/sub-glacier moraine – load carried at the base of the glacier.
  2. b) Englacial moraine – load within the glacier.
  3. c) Lateral moraine – load carried at the sides of the glacier.
  4. d) Medial moraine – load carried in the centre of the valley by glacier.
  5. e) Terminal/recessional moraine – load deposited at the point where a glacier melts.

Types of Glacial Deposits/Drift:

  1. a) Till – directly deposited by ice on melting in unstratified manner.
  2. b) Fluvial – materials deposited by water from the melting ice in stratified manner.

Causes of Glacial Deposition

  1. Amount of glacial drift

When ground moraine is too much the glacier glides over it leaving it behind.

  1. Weight of glacier

When more ice is added to a stationary glacier pressure is exerted at the base causing melting and the material which was embedded in the ice is dropped.

  1. Climatic change

During summer and spring ice melts depositing some materials the glacier was carrying.

  1. Friction beneath the ice

Friction between ice and surface reduces ice speed causing heavy materials to be deposited beneath ice sheets.

  1. Slope

Lowlands allow glacier to accumulate a lot of materials which are finally deposited by melting ice.

Features Resulting From Glacial Deposition

  1. a) Till Plain
    • Extensive area of flat relief resulting from burying of former valleys and hills by glacial deposits.
  1. b) Erratics
  1. c) Drumlins
  1. d) Terminal Moraine Ridge
    • Ridge like feature formed by extensive deposition of moraine along the edge of an ice sheet.
  1. e) Eskers
    • Long winding ridge composed of gravel formed by glacial deposition.
  1. f) Kame
    • Isolated hill made of sand and gravel which have been deposited in strata by glacial water.
  1. g) Kame Terrace
  1. h) Outwash Plains

 

 

 

Significance of Glaciation

Positive

  1. Some outwash plains have fertile morainic soils suitable for agriculture e.g. Canadian prairies where wheat is grown.
  2. Water falls on hanging valleys are used for generation of H.E.P.
  3. Glaciated highlands are a tourist attraction especially during winter when sporting activities such as skiing and ice skating are carried out.
  4. Glacial lakes such as great lakes of N.America provide natural route ways and fish sources e.g. L.Superior and Huron.
  5. Glaciated mountains are catchment areas for permanent rivers.
  6. Sheltered water of fiords is a suitable bleeding ground of fish as natural harbours.
  7. Sand excavated from outwash plains and eskers is used for construction.

                                                     Negative

  1. Land in glaciated areas can’t be fully utilised for agriculture due to being marshy because of boulder clay deposits e.g. central Ireland.
  2. Infertile sands deposited in outwash plains make land unsuitable for agriculture.
  3. Numerous lakes formed as a result of morainic deposits reduce the land available for agriculture.
  4. Settlement and transportation in glaciated landscape is difficult due to ruggedness caused by glacial action.

                         

 

 

 

 

 

                                              

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

                                                

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

SOIL

                                     Constituents/Composition of Soil

  1. Inorganic Matter
  1. Organic Matter

Significance of Organic Matter

  1. Broken down by bacteria forming humus improving the soil fertility.
  2. Soil with high organic matter is alkaline while one with low organic matter is acidic.
  3.   Soil Water
    • Water contained in the soil.
    • Forms 25% of total volume.

Types of Soil Water

                                              Hygroscopic Water

                                                    Gravitation Water

Importance

  1. Solvent of minerals and nutrients essential for plant growth.
  2. Causes leaching Carrying of minerals.
  3. Causes water logging which blocks air circulation causing soil to lack oxygen and become acidic.
  4.   Soil Air
    • Air contained within air/pore spaces of soil.
    • Forms 25% of total volume.

Importance

  1. a) For plant and soil organisms metabolism.
  2. b) For oxidation which causes conversion of part of organic material into nitrogen.
  1. For respiration of aerobic micro-organisms which break down organic matter to form humus e.g. bacteria.

Soil Formation

Factors Influencing Soil Forming Processes

  1. a) Parent Material
  1. b) Climate
  1. c) Living Organisms
  1. d) Topography

Time

Soil Forming Processes

  1. Weathering
  1. Decomposition of Organic Matter

Processes

  1. a) Mineralization
  1. b) Humification
  1. Leaching

Types

  1. i) Ferralisation/lateralisation
  1. ii) Illuviation

iii) Eluviation

  1. iv) Podzolisation
  1. v) Calcification
  1. vi) Ribification

Properties and Characteristics of Soil

  1.                          a) Texture
SOIL CLASS PARTICLE DIAMETER
Coarse sand 0.2 – 2mm
Fine sand 0.2 – 0.02mm
Silt 0.02 – 0.002mm
Clay Below 0.002mm

Importance

  1. Determines soil water retention by that coarse grained soils have poor retention while those fine grained have high water retention.
  2. Influences ease of root penetration into the soil whereby it is easy on coarse textured and difficult in fine textured.
  3. Determining soil fertility in that clay content prevents humus from being washed down the soil by water.
  4. b) Structure
    • Arrangement of soil particles into aggregate compound particles.

Types

  1. Crump soil structure – soil made of small, soft, groups of particles of irregular shape.
  2. Granular structure – soil made of porous groups of particles of irregular shape called granules.
  1. Prismatic structure – soil made of vertical prism like particles with rounded tops.
  2. Blocky structure – soil made of irregular pieces of soil with sharp corners and edges.
  3. c) Soil PH
    • Basicity or acidity measure of a soil.
    • Sulphate/phosphate – acidity
    • Calcium/magnesium – Basicity
PH VALUE REACTION DESCRIPTION
8 Alkaline
7 Neutral
6 Slightly acidic
5 Moderately acidic
4 strongly acidic

Importance

  1. Influences the activity of soil micro-organisms and hence decomposition of organic matter.
  2. Influences rate at which roots absorb minerals.
  1. Determines availability of different nutrients to the plants e.g. phosphorous is not available at low PH while potassium and iron not available at high PH.
  2. d) Soil Colour
    • Visible quality of soil.

Dark brown or black – considerable amount of organic matter.

Grey – poorly drained or water logged.

Whitish- lacks organic matter, iron oxides and has soluble salts concentration.

Importance

  1. Influences soil temperature in that light coloured soils have low temperature and hence low organism activity.
  2. High temp destroy humus, increase organism activity and provide warmth required for germination.

 

 

  1. e) Soil Porosity
    • Amount of pore spaces in a soil sample.

Importance

  1. Influence soil water retention. Clay has high retention and is water logged because it doesn’t allow drainage due to many tiny pore spaces while sand has poor water retention due to rapid percolation caused by large pore spaces.
  2. f) Soil Permeability
    • Ability to allow the water to pass through.
    • Depends on texture and porosity. Clay is impermeable due to being fine textured and tiny pored while sand is permeable due to being coarse textured and very porous.

Soil Profile

A mature soil is one with a fully developed profile while a young soil is one with a not fully developed profile.

Superficial layer

Horizon ‘A’

Horizon ‘B’

Horizon ‘C’

Horizon ‘D’

                                            Importance of Soil Profile

  1. Determines the crops to be planted i.e. mature soils favour deep rooted crops while young soils favour shallow rooted crops.
  2. Bed rock determines the chemical properties of the soil such as PH and nutrients.

Soil Catena

Factors Influencing Development of a Soil Catena

  1. a) Relief
  1. b) Drainage
  1. c) Transportation of Debris

Soil Degeneration

Types

  1. Physical Degeneration

Causes

  1. Deforestation which leads to removal of vegetation which forms a protective cover of the soil exposing it to erosion agents.
  2. Overgrazing which causes excessive loss of water from the soil causing it to become loose and fine grained and easily eroded.
  3. Poor Cultivation Techniques
  4. Pulling hoe along the surface when removing weeds which loosens the soil and when it rains it’s washed away.
  5. Ploughing of land down slope which accelerates soil erosion.
  1. Burning which destroys vegetation covering the soil exposing it to erosion agents.
  2. Growing crops on the same peace of land from season to season which sucks nutrients from the soil making it fine, loose and easy to be eroded.
  3. Planting crops such as maize whose foliage doesn’t provide adequate soil cover encourages soil erosion.
  1. Heavy rain resulting to excessive soil erosion and thus poorly aerated.
  2. Drought which deprives the soil of moisture which holds the soil together causing particles to loosen making it to be easily brown by wind.
  3. Excavation works such as quarrying, open-cast mining, building of estates and road construction which loosen and expose the soil to erosion agents.
  4. Soil erosion which robs the soil of top fertile layer.
  5. Chemical Degeneration

Causes

  1. Leaching which makes minerals inaccessible to shallow rooted crops.
  2. Excessive application of fertilizers which interferes with bacterial activity and causes the soil to become too acidic and unable to support a variety of crops.
  3. Excess water causing water logging causing acidic conditions.
  4. Planting one type of crop repeatedly which makes the soil deficient of some nutrients.
  5. Excessive drought which causes accumulation of salts in the top soil.
  6. Burning such as in slash and burning which kills micro-organisms causing nitrogen deficiency when nitrogen fixing bacteria is killed.
  7. Biological Degeneration
  1. Deforestation which deprives the soil of its organic content and moisture making it loose and more vulnerable to erosion.
  2. Burning such as in slash and burning which kills micro-organisms causing low decomposition rate which robs soil of organic matter.
  3. Overgrazing which causes removal of vegetation causing excessive loss of water from the soil and hence reduced micro-organism activity resulting into shortage of humus.
  4. Drought and excessive moisture which may lead to a shortage of essential organisms such as bacteria, earthworms, termites and burrowing animals.

                            Soil Erosion

Agents of soil erosion are water, glacier and wind.

Causes of soil erosion are human activities and geomorphic processes such as earthquakes and faulting which cause land slides and soil creep.

Conditions Favouring Soil Erosion

  1. a) Slope

 

  1. b) Soil Texture
  1. c) Climate

Types of Soil Erosion

  1. a) Splash Erosion
  1. b) Rill Erosion
  1. c) Gulley Erosion
  1. d) Sheet Erosion

Impact/effect of Soil Erosion

Positive

  1. Creation of rich agricultural lands when eroded soil is carried and deposited e.g. loess and alluvial soils in lower courses of R.Tana.
  2. Sand eroded from steep slopes and deposited on river bed is scooped for construction purposes e.g. Machakos.

                                   Negative

  1. Lowers the agricultural productivity of land when fertile top soil is eroded.
  2. Contributes to desertification when top soil is eroded leaving bare ground destroying vegetation.
  3. Causes water pollution when agro-chemicals and other chemicals are carried to rivers, lakes or oceans.
  4. Contributes to flooding by blocking river channels causing them to burst their banks during the rain season flooding the adjacent areas.
  5. Causes siltation of water reservoirs reducing their utility e.g. For H.E.P. generation.
  6. May cause collapsing of structures such as buildings and bridges when soil around them is eroded weakening their foundation.

Management and Conservation of Soil

Soil management is controlling processes and activities that would cause soil deterioration while soil conservation is protecting soil from destruction.

Soil Management and Conservation Measures

  1. a) Crop Rotation
  1. b) Mixed Farming
  1. c) Contour Ploughing
  1. d) Terracing
  1. e) Afforestation and Reafforestation
  1. f) Planting Wind Breakers
  1. g) Regulating Livestock Numbers

                 

  1. h) Constructing Gabions
    • Construction of wire mesh boxes which are filled with soil.
    • Allow water to pass through but trap the soil then vegetation gradually grows on the trapped soil.
  1. i) Planting Cover Crops
  1. j) Mulching

Significance of Soils

  1. Gives physical support for the rooting system of plants and protects root system from damage.
  2. Habitat for burrowing animals and bacteria necessary for breakdown of organic matter into humus.
  3. Medium through which nutrients and air are made available to plants.
  4. Provides mineral elements to plants e.g. nitrogen, calcium, phosphates, etc.
  5. Is used in building and construction e.g. clay for making bricks and tiles.
  6. Clay soil is used in ceramics such as making pots.
  7. Some soils are used for decorative purpose e.g. ache used among Maasai.
  8. Source of minerals especially to expectant mothers.
  9. Soil contains valuable mineral elements such as alluvial gold.
  10. Soil supports plant life which is a source of food for people and animals especially herbivores.
  11. Soils are used for medicinal purposes e.g. clay is mixed with some herbs for medical purpose in some communities.

Significance of Soil on Plant Growth

Characteristics and properties of a particular soil influences plant growth and distribution.

PH

Drainage

Depth

Moisture content

Temperature

Aeration

                                           

Mineral composition

Soil Classification

-Grouping of soil according to specific properties such as age, texture, colour and climate.

  1. Zonal Order

Mature soils with a well developed profile due to having undergone long time soil formation processes under good drainage conditions.

Sub-orders

  1. a) Podsols
  1. b) Podzolic Soils
  1. c) Tundra Soils
  1. d) Latosols
  1. e) Nitosols
  1. f) Phenozems (Prairie Soils)
  1. g) Sierozems (desert soils)
  1. h) Pedocals

Sub-groups existing in Kenya

  1. i) Chermozems
  1. ii) Vertisols/Black Cotton Soils
  1. Intrazonal Order

Sub-orders

  1. a) Hydromorphic soils

Groups

  1. i) Plano soils – found on flat old land surfaces.
  2. ii) Bog and meadow – found in meadows, marshes and swamps e.g. Lorian and Yala swamps.
  3. b) Halmorphic Soils
  1. c) Calcimorphic Soils
  1. d) Andosols
  1. Azonal Order

Sub-orders

  1. a) Lithosols
  1. b) Regosols
  1. c) Alluvial Soils (Fluvisols)
  1. d) Mountain Soils
  1. e) Histosols
  1. f) Arenosols

 

AGRICULTURE

Factors Influencing Agriculture

  1. Physical Factors
  2. a) Climate
  3. i) Temperature
  1. ii) Sunshine

iii) Winds

  1. iv) Moisture
  1. b) Soil
  1. c) Topography/relief
  2. i) Altitude
  1. ii) Terrain

iii) Aspect

  1. Biotic factors
  2. a) Weeds
  1. b) Insects
  1. c) Small Animals
  1. d) Diseases
  1. Human/ Social factors
  2. a) Traditions
  3. i) Gender
  1. Traditional foods
  1. b) Land Tenure System
  1. c) Religious Beliefs
  1. Economic Factors
  2. a) Operating Costs

Price fall discourage some farmers causing some to neglect or uproot their crops and venture in other areas such as horticulture and dairy farming.

  1. c) Govt Policy/Political Factors

Trade Restrictions

Types of Agriculture

  1. Arable Farming
    • Cultivation and management of crops.

Types

  1. a) Subsistence Arable farming

 Types

  1. i) Shifting Cultivation/Simple Subsistence Farming

Method of Cultivation

  1. A plot is sited in a virgin forest on well drained hill slopes.
  2. Land is slashed and vegetation put on fire for ashes provide potash which improves fertility.
  3. The land is dug using simple tools such as hoes or digging stick.
  4. Staggered planting is done throughout the year to have a continuous supply of food.
  5. The plot is cultivated for a period of 3-5yrs after which it’s abandoned and a new section of forest is cleared.

Characteristics

  1. There is migration from one plot to another when the former plot loses fertility.
  2. Cultivated areas are usually small (1-3 acres).
  3. Very little attention is given to land and crops.
  4. Short periods of crop occupancy alternate with long periods of fallowing.
  5. Mainly uses manual labour provided by the immediate family.
  6. Use of simple tools.
  7. Crops are mainly starchy foods e.g. cassava, yams, millet, etc.
  8. Land is cultivated by slash and burning.

                                                     Disadvantages

  1. Exposes land to soil erosion on the plots which have been left fallow.
  2. Doesn’t guarantee sufficient food production.
  3. Extensive destruction of vegetation when fires get out of control.
  4. Wasteful because sections of land stay fallow for a very long time.
  5. Only practicable in areas with sparse population and plenty of land.
  6. There are hardly any monetary gains because the produce is only enough for home consumption.
  7. ii) Sedentary Subsistence Agriculture

Characteristics

  1. The community occupies a permanent dwelling spot.
  2. Fallowed fields are frequently reused.
  3. Crop rotation is practiced in some areas.
  4. More attention is given to the land and crops sown.
  5. More labour is used in the field.
  6. Can support a larger population compared to shifting cultivation.

iii) Intensive Subsistence Agriculture

Types

  1. Dominated by other types of crops
  2. Dominated by wet paddy

Characteristics

  1. Very small plots resulting from years of fragmentation.
  2. Intensive use of land.
  3. Most work is carried out by hand.
  4. Simple implements e.g. hoes, ploughs etc.
  5. Several crops are grown on the same piece of land during the course of the year.
  6. Crops vary from region to region e.g. Kenya – maize, beans, potatoes, Asia – rice in some areas, others-wheat, soya beans and barley.
  7. Livestock rearing is almost nonexistent because there is no land for growing pasture.
  8. Use of manure and chemical fertilizers to sustain high soil fertility for maximum yields.
  9. Use of Irrigation to make up inadequacy of moisture.
  10. b) Commercial Arable Farming
  11. i) Plantation Agriculture

Characteristics

  1. Large tracts of land are cultivated.
  2. Cash crops are grown e.g. coffee, tea, cocoa rubber, etc.
  3. A single crop is usually grown.
  4. Done for commercial purpose.
  5. High capital is required to start and meet recurrent expenditure.
  6. Crops take some years after planting before they start yielding.
  7. Most plantations are owned by foreign companies.
  8. Employment of scientific management to produce a lot of output.

Problems

  1. Crops may be destroyed by climatic hazards reducing production.
  2. High expenditure in maintaining plantations.
  3. Subdivision of some plantations to provide land for the landless shareholders who bought them causing decline in output from plantations.
  4. Crops may also be destroyed by insect pests and diseases which also affect labourers.
  5. Rapid deterioration of soil due to monoculture, soil erosion due to complete weeding and most crops not providing sufficient soil cover.
  6. Fluctuations of world prices causing the farmer to suffer great losses as they have no other crop to supplement their income.
  7. Poor management whereby managers misuse funds and shareholders fight over management leaving plantations unattended.
  8. ii) Extensive Mechanised Grain Cultivation

Characteristics

  1. Extremely large farms in mid-latitudes.
  2. Cultivation is highly mechanized due to large farm sizes and its more economical and efficient.
  3. Wheat is the main crop cultivated with other crops including barley, corn, millet and sorghum in Veldt etc.
  4. Yield per farmer is high due to mechanisation.
  5. Grain is raised on unirrigated land since it requires as little as 325mm annual precipitation.
  6. Farms are individually owned.

iii) Intensive Commercial Agriculture

Characteristics

  1. Soil is utilised intensively to ensure maximum yields per unit area.
  2. Farms are generally small in size.
  3. Manual labour is used to tend crops
  4. Proper care is given to planted crops.
  5. Mechanisation where farms are a bit larger.
  6. Farmers use large amounts of fertilizers, hybrid seeds and pesticides.
  7. Irrigation water is used to supplement rainfall insufficiency.
  8. Farming is sometimes highly specialised with some farms growing crops or keeping animals.

                                    

  1. c) Mediterranean Agriculture
    • Type distinct to areas experiencing Mediterranean climate.

Main areas – middle Chile, Piedmont district in N. Italy and Andalistic District of S. Spain.

                                        Characteristics

  1. Farming is intensive.
  2. It’s highly specialised.
  3. Subsistence farming is practiced alongside commercial farming.
  4. Cereal crops are most widespread e.g. barley and wheat.
  5. Orchard farming is carried out and it’s the leading producer of citrus fruits, olives, dates and figs.
  6. A small number of sheep, goats and cows are reared due to prolonged droughts and coarse bunchy grasses unsuitable for livestock.

Crop Farming

Cash crops are grown mainly in southern part of Kenya due to the following factors:

  1. Suitable climatic conditions for a variety of crops such as temperature ranging from cool to cold, rainfall ranging between 800-2000mm annually and dry sunny periods between rainy seasons.
  2. Fertile volcanic soils in highlands or alluvial soils in the lake basin of Kenya suitable for crop growing.
  3. Adequate labour supply due to high population.
  4. Long tradition of cash crops growing emanating from cash crops introduction by European settlers.
  5. Govt policy to support small scale farmers

Some of the major cash crops grown in Kenya

  1. Pyrethrum – Nakuru, Kisii, Limuru, Nyandarua.
  2. Sisal -Thika, Taita-Taveta, Baringo, Kilifi.
  3. Wattle – Uasin Gishu, Thika, Kiambu.
  4. Cashew nuts – Kilifi.
  5. Cotton-Rachuonyo, Busia, Meru, Kitui, Makueni.
  6. Rice – Busia, Kirinyaga.

Tea Farming In Kenya

Tea types

  1. Aswan variety­ common in India and Srilanka.
  2. Chinese variety.
    • Kenya is the largest producer in Africa, among top 6 world producers and has the best tea in the world market.

Major Growing Areas

  1. Highlands – Kericho, Nandi, Kakamega, Cherangani hills.
  2. Highlands – Nyeri, Murang`a, Kiambu, Thika, etc.

Conditions Necessary for Tea Growing

                                                 Physical Requirements

  1. Warm temperature throughout the year (15◦C-30◦C).
  2. Heavy and well distributed rainfall (1000-2000mm annually).
  3. Deep and slightly acidic soils.
  4. High altitude of about 1000-3000m above sea level.
  5. The area to be free from frost.
  6. Gently sloping land which is well drained.
  7. Area to be shielded from strong sunlight and violent winds.

Human Requirements

  1. Adequate labour for cultivation and processing which are labour intensive.
  2. Good transport routes for quick transport of tea leaves to factory before they start withering.
  3. Location of tea factories near farms for quick processing of tea as soon as possible.
  4. Availability of capital to pay for the labour required in land preparation, planting, regular picking etc.

Tea Cultivation

Harvesting Of Tea

                                         Processing Of Tea

                             Problems Facing Kenyan Tea Farmers

  1. Pests e.g. weevils and beetles which attack tender leaves supposed to be picked.
  2. Diseases e.g. root rot which causes the bush to wither, dry and eventually die.
  3. Hail stones which fall on tea bushes causing damage e.g. in Kericho and Nandi.
  4. Fluctuations of world prices which causes the farmers to lose morale and neglect or uproot the crop.
  5. Shortage of rainfall leading to reduction in leaf production.
  6. Transport problems in some areas due to dilapidated roads which cause spoilage of harvested tea before it reaches the factory.
  7. Shortage of labour in some tea growing areas where young people have migrated to towns.
  8. Shortage of capital to meet production costs.

Marketing of Tea in Kenya

Functions of KTDA

  1. Collection of tea from buying centres.
  2. Processing of tea.
  3. Providing farmers with inputs such as fertiliser.
  4. Sensitizes farmers on high quality production of tea.
  5. Facilitates sale of tea at best possible prices.
  6. Ensures prompt collection of payment from all tea buyers.
  7. Promotion of tea with the aim of expanding market share.

Outlets through Which It Markets Tea

  1. Factory door sale of tea in polythene bags to farmers accounting for 3% of sales.
  2. Through Mombasa auction where its exported to other countries such as Britain, France Afghanistan. It accounts for 75% of sales.
  3. Dealing directly with interested buyers which accounts for 15% of sales.
    • KETEPA is the largest tea packing company in Africa belonging to tea grower’s grades, blends and packs some of the tea then sells to local market and exports superior qualities.
    • Other companies which pack tea for local sale include Kikuyu Highland Tea Company and Unilever Kenya (Home Cup).

Significance of Tea Farming in Kenya

  1. Earns foreign exchange from tea export.
  2. Saves some foreign exchange that would be used to import tea.
  3. Farmers earn income which raises their standard of living.
  4. It creates employment such as for people working in farms and factories.
  5. Has led to development of industries such as processing factories, blending and packaging industries.
  6. Has led to development of infrastructure by roads being improved to ease transportation of tea to factories..

Sugar Cane Growing In Kenya

Main Growing Areas

Nyanza:  Muhoroni, Miwani, Chemilil and Awendo.

Coastal: Ramisi.

Western: Mumias, Nzoia, Kabras, Nambele.

Conditions Favouring Sugarcane growing (requirements)

Physical

  1. High temperatures(21◦c-27◦C)
  2. High and well distributed rainfall (1200-1500mm annually).
  3. Dry and sunny weather during harvesting to increase sugar accumulation in the cane.
  4. Fertile and well drained soils.
  5. Undulating land for machinery to be used and for easier transportation of cane to factories.
  6. Altitude between sea level and 1600m.

Human Requirements

  1. Abundant labour for planting, weeding, cutting and loading onto trucks.
  2. A good transport infrastructure for sugarcane to reach the factory within a week after harvesting.
  3. Location of processing factories within the growing areas for quick processing of sugarcane before losing its sugar content through drying.
  4. Availability of capital to pay workers in the field, buy farm machinery, etc.

Cultivation of Sugarcane

Harvesting of Sugarcane

Processing of Sugarcane

Uses of Sugar

  1. In baking to sweeten bread, cakes, etc.
  2. Sweetening foods and drinks e.g. porridge, chapati, tea, coffee, etc.
  3. Making local brews e.g. Karubu, nguru, etc.
  4. In soft drinks industries e.g. soda, juice, etc.
  5. Making sweets and chocolates, etc.
  6. Manufacture of drugs e.g. syrups and sugar coated tablets.

Uses of By-products

  1. Molasses is used as a sweetener for livestock feeds.
  2. It’s also used to manufacture ethanol, acetone and ethyl-acetate.
  3. Bagasse or fibre left after squeezing the juice is used as fuel for boilers, for preparing pulp for making paper used for making cement and fertilizer bags and as fodder or manure.
  4. Filter cake resulting from filtration process is used as manure for cane.

Marketing of Sugar

Significance of Sugarcane growing

  1. Creation of employment e.g. in estates, factories, sugar mills.
  2. Promotes development of industries such as processing sugar cane, industrial spirit and breweries manufacturing, etc.
  3. Has led to growth of towns in growing areas e.g. Muhoroni, Awendo and Mumias.
  4. Saves some foreign exchange that would be used in sugar importation.
  5. Farmers earn income through cane sale raising their standards of living.
  6. Provision of social amenities to workers such as schools, houses and health centres to take care of workers welfare e.g. Mumias.

Problems Facing Sugarcane Farming In Kenya

  1. Pests e.g. termites which attack setts lowering the farmers yield.
  2. Diseases e.g. sugarcane mosaic which causes the crop to become stunted with leaves becoming yellow.
  3. Mismanagement of some sugar factories resulting in their closure and subsequent loss of income and jobs.
  4. Inability of some factories to cope with supply of cane from out-growers due to low production capacity and outdated technology.
  5. Local sugar industry faces competition from cheap imported sugar from COMESA countries.
  6. Strikes by cane farmers and transporters due to inadequate pay resulting in drop in output.
  7. Frequent fires which destroy many hectares of cane annually.

Maize Farming in Kenya

Main Growing Areas

Conditions Favouring Maize Growing In Kenya

Physical Requirements

  1. Warm temperatures (above 15◦c).
  2. High annual rainfall(635-1145mm)
  3. Deep well drained fertile soil with abundant amount of nitrogen.
  4. Undulating landscape to allow use of machines.
  5. Lower altitudes of about 1800m or below sea level.

Human Requirements

  1. Abundant labour for preparation of land, sowing, weeding, shelling and packing.
  2. A good transport network to enable farmers to transport harvested grain to millers and buying centres.
  3. A good and sufficient storage facility for the grain after it has been harvested and before it is sold.
  4. Availability of capital to pay for labour, buy inputs and pay for transportation of grain to the market.

                                            Cultivation of Maize

                               Harvesting of Maize

Processing of Maize

Uses of Maize

  1. Used as food for githeri and flour for ugali and porridge.
  2. Grains are also used in the manufacture of animal feeds e.g. maize jam.
  3. Tender maize plants are chopped and mixed with molasses to make silage for livestock.
  4. Used to make salad oil for cooking, industrial alcohol and starch.
  5. Stalks and cobs are used as organic manure and to provide domestic fuel.

Marketing of Maize

Importance to Kenya’s Economy

  1. Saves foreign exchange by avoiding importing maize all the time.
  2. Promotes growth of industries where it’s used as raw material e.g. milling and corn oil industries.
  3. Has created employment e.g. for farm workers, milling workers.
  4. Provides income to farmers raising their standard of living.
  5. Government earns revenue from taxes levied on maize products such as corn oil and alcohol.

Problems Facing Maize Farmers in Kenya

  1. Pests such as stalk borers which penetrate to the centre of the plant.
  2. Diseases such as white leaf blight which causes oval, grey lesions on the leaves.
  3. Reduction of maize prices in the local market caused by irregular importation of maize which discourages the farmers.
  4. Inadequate capital on the farmer part to buy inputs such as seeds, fertilizers and insect sides.
  5. Soil exhaustion due prolonged planting of maize leading to poor yields.
  6. Exploitation of farmers by middle men who buy their produce at throw away prices making the farmers unable to meet production costs.

Cocoa Growing In Ghana

Main Growing Areas

Conditions Favouring Cocoa Growing in Ghana

Physical Factors

  1. High temperatures of over 26◦c throughout the year.
  2. High and well distributed rainfall (1300-1500mm annually).
  3. Low altitude areas below 700m above sea level.
  4. Slightly drier period during harvesting.
  5. High relative humidity of over 75%.
  6. Fertile well drained soils rich in iron and potassium.
  7. Protection from sunshine which causes high rate of evaporation and winds which cause pods to fall off by inter-planting with shady trees such as bananas, oil palms and kola trees.

Human Factors

  1. Abundant labour for cultivation, harvesting and processing.
  2. Availability of market.

Cultivation of Cocoa

Harvesting and Processing of Cocoa

Marketing of Cocoa

Uses of Cocoa

Significance of Cocoa to Ghana’s Economy

  1. Earns Ghana a most foreign exchange (60%).
  2. The foreign exchange from cocoa is used to improve infrastructure and social amenities.
  3. A source of employment for over 20% of working population.
  4. Provides a steady income for farmers which has improves their standard of living.

Problems Facing Cocoa Farming in Ghana

  1. Pests e.g. capsid bug which sucks the pulp in pods and causes the tree to die.
  2. Diseases e.g. black pod which affects the pods.
  3. Fluctuations of cocoa prices in the world market causing the farmer and the country to receive low income.
  4. Shortage of labour during harvesting season which causes delay in harvesting and high expenses when hiring labour from neighbouring countries.

Oil Palm Farming in Nigeria

Main Growing Areas

Conditions Favouring Oil Farming in Nigeria

Physical Factors

  1. High temperatures throughout the year (over 21◦c).
  2. Heavy and well distributed rainfall throughout the year.
  3. High relative humidity.
  4. Well drained porous and fertile soils.
  5. Undulating land which is less exposed to strong winds.

Human Factors

  1. Abundant labour for clearing land, tendering seedlings, regular weeding, etc.
  2. Proper transport network for harvested fruits to reach the processing factories the same day so as not to change into fatty acids.
  3. Location of processing factories within or near growing areas since oil palms are perishable and must be processed the same day.
  4. Efficient management to ensure that the crops are inspected frequently for any disease or pest attack for spraying to be done to control their spread.
  5. Capital to pay labour wages, maintain feeder roads, vehicles and factories.

Cultivation of Oil Palm

Harvesting of Oil Palm

Processing/Extraction of Oil from Oil Palm Fruit

Traditional Technique

The method produces very little oil which lacks consistency in quality.

Use of Pioneer Mills

Uses of Palm Oil

  1. Used domestically for cooking, lighting and polishing.
  2. Used in the manufacture of cooking fats, soaps and candles.
  3. Kernel is used to make expensive cooking oil, margarine, cosmetics and oil soaps.
  4. Used as a cleaning agent in industries.

Uses of Palm Tree

  1. Palm leaves are used for thatching, making mats, baskets and brooms.
  2. Pericarp fibres and nut shells are used as fuel.
  3. Palm trees are used as building poles.
  4. The tree is tapped for its sap which is fermented to make palm wine.

Marketing of Oil Palm

Significance of Oil Palm to Nigeria’s Economy

  1. It’s a source of foreign exchange.
  2. It saves some of foreign exchange.
  3. Provides employment to people as farm hands, processing, etc which raises their standard of living.
  4. Has led to development of infrastructure to link processing areas with processing factories.
  5. Promoted development of industries where it’s used as a raw material e.g. making cosmetics, toilet soaps etc.
  6. Farmers earn regular income which raises their standard of living.

Problems Facing Oil Palm Farming in Nigeria

  1. Pests and diseases which young plants due to their vulnerability which calls for regular spraying which is expensive.
  2. Inadequate capital to purchase inputs leading to low yields.
  3. Transport problems in some areas due to impassable roads leading to delays in delivering fruits to processing mills leading to low quality oil.
  4. Government policy to encourage food production to reduce food importation which lowers oil palm production.

Coffee Farming in Kenya and Brazil

Growing Areas

  1. Central Province – Nyeri, Muranga, Kiambu, Thika, Kirinyaga.
  2. Province – Embu, Machakos, Tharaka, Makueni and high areas of Meru.
  3. Coast Province – Taita Taveta in Wundanyi area.
  4. Province – Bungoma, Vihiga, Kakamega.
  5. Nyanza Province – Kisii, Nyamira, Nyabondo, Oyugis.
  6. Nairobi Province – outskirts bordering Kiambu and Thika.

Factors Favouring Coffee Growing

Kenya

Physical Factors

  1. High altitude (910-2100m).
  2. Cool temperatures (14-26◦c).
  3. High and well distributed rainfall (1000-2030mm) annually.
  4. Deep and well drained acidic soils.
  5. Undulating landscape to ensure good drainage and aeration.

Human Factors

  1. Adequate supply of cheap labour for land preparation, planting, weeding, etc.
  2. Good roads for transporting coffee to factories and to the markets.

Brazil

Physical Factors

  1. Cool temperatures (14◦c-26◦c).
  2. High rainfall of 1525mm.
  3. A long dry season of up to 5 months to allow ripening and harvesting.
  4. Terra Rosa soils which are deep, porous and rich in potash and humus.
  5. Undulating surface at the Brazilian plateau around Sao Paolo.

Human Factors

  1. Availability of cheap labour from tenant labourers given small plots to grow subsistence crops which makes production costs to be low.
  2. A good transport infrastructure with roads and railways linking estates to export ports and cities like Sao Paolo, Salvador and Rio de Janeiro.

Methods of Coffee Production

                              Brazil

Coffee Harvesting

Processing

Wet Processing

Dry Processing

Marketing

Kenya

Brazil

The Role of Coffee in the Economies

  1. It’s a source of foreign exchange used to import commodities which are not available locally and develop other sectors of the economy.
  2. Saves some foreign exchange that would otherwise be used to import coffee.
  3. Source of income to farmers which reduces poverty and raise their standard of living.
  4. Source of employment for the workers in farms, factories, co-operatives, etc.
  5. It’s a source of foreign exchange used to import unavailable commodities and develop other sectors of the economy.
  6. In Brazil it has led to infrastructural development as roads have been constructed to link estates to export cities.
  7. It also saves some foreign exchange that would otherwise be used to import coffee.

 

 

Problems Facing Coffee Farming

Kenya

  1. Poor payment which causes farmers to neglect or uproot the crop and venture in other areas such as horticulture and dairying.
  2. Diseases e.g. C.B.D and leaf rust which reduce the coffee yields.
  3. Pests e.g. leaf miner which attacks coffee leaves causing them to fall off.
  4. Mismanagement of some co-operatives and embezzlement of funds by leaders which has caused some co-operatives to close up.
  5. Exhaustion of soil as coffee uses a lot of nutrients from the soil.
  6. Inadequate capital making the farmer unable to buy inputs such as fertilizers and chemicals leading to low production.
  7. Unreliable rainfall and drought conditions which causes young berries to ripen prematurely and fall off.
  8. Competition from other crops which have caused farmers to abandon coffee due to low prices.

How the Government Is Assisting Small Scale Farmers

  1. Carrying out research into new species of coffee and control of pests and diseases.
  2. Construction of new roads and improvement of the existing ones to enhance transportation of coffee.
  3. Providing extension workers through the ministry of agriculture to advice farmers on the best farming methods.
  4. Advancing loans to farmers through K.P.C.U. to assist them improve on their farming.
  5. It helps the farmers to market their produce through Coffee Board of Kenya.
  6. It holds courses and has set demonstration farms to update farmers on new farming methods.

Brazil

The future of coffee production is unstable because coffee production has been declining due to the following reasons:

  1. Fluctuations of world prices which has forced some farmers to abandon coffee in favour of other crops.
  2. Diversification or introduction of new crops which fetch higher prices e.g. cotton, sugarcane, and maize which have lowered coffee production.
  3. Increased competition from other coffee producing countries such as Kenya, Columbia and W. Indies.
  4. Indiscriminate picking of ripe and unripe berries causing coffee quality to be among the lowest and thus fetching low prices in the international market.
  5. Climatic hazard of frost which has caused coffee to be replaced with less vulnerable crops such as sugarcane and Soya beans.
  6. Soil exhaustion as a result of exploiting the soil without renewing it which leads to low yields.
  7. Uncontrolled planting where by farmers plant more trees when there is coffee boom resulting in overproduction.

How the Government Is Responding To the Problems

  1. The government lobbies for higher quotas in the world market.
  2. Prohibiting new planting.
  3. Buying and storing surplus to artificially stabilise supply to maintain profit margins.
  4. Creation of artificial shortage of coffee in the world market by the institute for permanent defence of coffee to maintain high prices.
  5. Encouraging crop diversification and mixed farming to reduce overdependence on coffee.

Comparison between Coffee Farming in Kenya and Brazil

Similarities

Differences

Wheat Farming in Kenya and Canada

Kenya

Wheat was introduced in Kenya by Lord Delamere around Nakuru.

Main Growing Areas

  1. Uasin Gishu District
  2. Nakuru
  3. Narok
  4. Laikipia
  5. Trans Nzoia
  6. Nyandarua
  7. Timau
  8. Mweiga in Nyeri

General Conditions Favouring Wheat growing

  1. Average temperatures not to exceed 20◦c or fall below 6◦c.
  2. Gently sloping landscape for proper drainage and allow use of machines.
  3. Warmth during early periods of growth and sunny dry conditions in later stages for harvesting.
  4. Rainfall of between 305-1015mm annually.
  5. Grows best on light clay soils because they are stiff and give plant firm support.

Factors Favouring Wheat Growing in Kenya

Physical Conditions

  1. Warm temperatures in growing areas of 15-20◦c at least for three months which promotes growth of wheat and protects it against frost.
  2. Moderate rainfall of 1800-1270mm which promotes growth of wheat.
  3. High altitude of growing areas of 1500-2900m which reduces incidences by high humidity.
  4. Deep fertile volcanic soils which lead to high production.
  5. Gently or fairly level land for proper drainage and to allow mechanisation.

Human Factors

  1. Adequate labour for planting, weeding, application of fertilizers etc.
  2. Availability of transport facilities such as lorries and tractors to transport grains from the fields to the store and then to buying centres.

Canada

The main growing areas are the following Prairie Provinces:

  1. Alberta
  2. Saskatchewan
  3. British Columbia
  4. Ontario
  5. Manitoba

Factors Which Have Favoured Wheat Growing In Canada/Which Have Led To the Rise of Canadian Prairies to Be One of the Leading Wheat Producing Regions in the World

  1. Warm summer temperatures (about 15.5◦c) which is ideal for wheat growing.
  2. Low altitude lowlands which are warm and favourable to wheat growth as highlands are too cold for the crop.
  3. Sufficient rainfall of 560mm per annum which supports wheat growth well.
  4. Extensive uninhabited tracts of land which have enabled large scale mechanised wheat cultivation.
  5. Good connection of prairie lands to domestic and international markets by railways, roads and sea ways.
  6. Fertile soils of prairies on which humus has accumulated without disturbance for a long time.
  7. Undulating topography of prairies which offers well drained suitable for wheat cultivation.

Cultivation (Production Methods)

Canada

 

Harvesting

Processing

Wheat Uses

  1. For bakery e.g. cakes, bread, etc.
  2. Wheat products are also used to make alcohol, preparation of glue and adhesive.
  3. Outer part of kernel is used to make bran for animal and poultry feeds.

Marketing

Kenya

                                                          Canada

Role of Wheat to the Economies

Kenya and Canada

  1. Has promoted development of related industries such as bakery, alcohol manufacturing, etc.
  2. It saves some foreign exchange.
  3. It creates employment in farms, processing, and other related industries.
  4. Provides income to farmers, traders which alleviates poverty and also raises the standard of living.
  5. In Canada it has led to improvement of infrastructure in growing areas to ease transportation of wheat.

Problems

Kenya

  1. Farmers have inadequate capital to buy inputs which lowers the yields.
  2. Pests such as dusty brown beetle which eat stem damaging the plant.
  3. Diseases such as the fungal stem rust which attacks the stem.
  4. Price fluctuations on the domestic market especially when selling through middle men.
  5. Shortage of storage facilities because the produce is transported to straight to NCPB before it sells it.
  6. Climatic hazard such as the stormy rains which flattens the crop leading to rotting and drought which may destroy entire crop.
  7. Soil exhaustion due to monoculture.

Canada

  1. Pests and diseases leading to low yields.
  2. Soil exhaustion due to monoculture which necessitates use of fertilizers.
  3. Adverse climatic conditions such as frost, hail and drought during summer.
  4. Price fluctuations in the world market which reduces farmer’s income.
  5. Transport problem during winter when export routes are frozen causing difficulty in accessing the sole market in USA.

Comparison

Similarities

Differences

Horticultural Farming in Kenya and Netherlands

Horticulture is the practice of growing fruits, vegetables and flowers for sale.

Main Features/Characteristics of Horticulture

  1. Farms are generally small in size.
  2. Farms are located near good transport routes due to produces perishability.
  3. Farms are located mostly near urban centres close to the markets.
  4. Land is intensely used to get maximum benefits.
  5. Advanced scientific techniques of crop production are used e.g. selected seeds, regular spraying, application of manure and fertilizers.
  6. Most of the work is done manually.
  7. The produce is market oriented (for export or local sale).
  8. It’s capital intensive because a lot of farm inputs are required.
  9. It involves quick and expensive modes of transport e.g. aeroplane because the produce is perishable, the mode is the quickest and the produce is in high demand.

Factors Favouring the Development of the Industry

Kenya

  1. Fertile volcanic soils which support a variety of crops.
  2. Variation of climate from cool to hot with moderate to high rainfall where tropical crops such as pawpaw and pineapple are grown while in cool areas temperate crops such as plums and peers are grown.
  3. High demand for products both locally and internationally (in winter when tropical vegetables, fruits and flowers are in high demand.
  4. Technical and financial assistance from friendly countries.
  5. Availability of capital from large and local overseas companies e.g. Del Monte, Kakuzi, etc.
  6. High labour due to high population as it is labour intensive.
  7. Accessibility to the market of most growing areas through roads and air transport.
  8. Government’s policy of diversification of export crops with the aim of broadening export base.
  9. Well organised marketing systems managed by Horticultural Co-operative Union and Horticultural Development Authority which help farmers to export their produce.

Netherlands/Holland

Conditions for Growth of the Industry

Physical Factors

  1. Well drained and quickly warmed sandy soils of the coast which are ideal for horticultural crops.
  2. Warm Gulf Stream Current which washes the coast making the area free from frost throughout the year.
  3. Accessibility to foreign markets due to central position in Europe.
  4. Shortage of land making it appropriate to establish horticultural farms.

Human Factors

  1. Advanced technology such as the use of glass houses.
  2. Good transport system easing movement of horticultural products throughout the country e.g. good harbours like Rotterdam, canals, navigable rivers, roads and railways.
  3. Skilled labour which ensures high production and quality packaging.
  4. High demand in the populous urban areas of continental Europe.
  5. Availability of capital as there are highly organised co-operative societies which provide loans to farmers.

 

Crops Grown and their Distribution

Kenya

Vegetables: cabbages, kales, carrots, tomatoes, turnips, cassava, sweet potatoes etc.

Fruits: oranges, mangoes, lemons, apples, pears, plums, bananas, paw paws.

Flowers: roses, orchids, gladioli, lilies, carnations etc. grown in Limuru, Naivasha, Murang’a, Kiambu, Thika, etc.

Netherlands

Vegetables: lettuces, cucumber, peaches, leaks, asparagus, cauliflower, melons.

Fruits: apples, pears, cherries, goose berries, redcurrants, raspberries etc.

Flowers: azalea, rhododendrons, tulips, hyacinths, roses and clematis.

Cultivation

Kenya

Advantages of Green Houses

  1. Plants don’t suffer effects of excessive rainfall.
  2. Plants aren’t affected by drought.
  3. Pest and disease spread are controlled.
  4. Uniformity of climate is created for all plants.
  5. Plants are protected from damaging effects of strong winds and airborne diseases.
  6. Crops can be grown throughout the year.
  7. It’s easier to control weeds by chemicals because the area is small.

Netherlands

  1. i) Flowers in Aalsmear near Amsterdam and Lei den in Harlem.
  1. Vegetables in the triangular area formed by Hague, Rotterdam and Hook of Holland.

Uses of Horticultural Crops

Fruits and vegetables are used as food while flowers are for decorating houses, offices, churches, weddings and funerals.

Marketing

Kenya

                                                  

Netherlands

Role to the Economies

  1. A source of foreign exchange.
  2. Saves some foreign exchange.
  3. Has led to industrial development by providing raw materials e.g. fruit canning, vegetable oil manufacturing, etc.
  4. Provides employment to many due to being labour intensive.
  5. It has led to development of infrastructure in the areas with large scale horticultural farms which have been served with better roads, water and electricity.
  6. Earns farmers income when they sell their produce to buyers and middlemen.
  7. Promotes better health and nutrition.
  8. Has led to effective land use e.g. swampy areas in C. Province have been reclaimed for vegetable production.

Problems

Kenya

  1. Inadequate capital in part of small scale farmers to buy inputs which lowers yield quality and quantity.
  2. Transport problem during rainy season in areas served only by seasonal roads leading to losses.
  3. Pests and diseases such as leaf blight which destroy the crops leading to losses.
  4. Lack of organised marketing system such as co-operatives causing exploitation by middlemen and inability to access credit and advisory services.
  5. High transport costs leading to sale of produce to middlemen who exploit farmers.
  6. Exploitation of workers by large horticultural companies leading to unrests e.g. working for long hours with less pay.

Netherlands

  1. Frost affects crops growing in the open.
  2. Inadequate capital to start new farms due to technology being very expensive.

Comparison

Similarities

Differences

                                                            

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  1. LIVESTOCK FARMING
  1. a) Traditional/Pastoral/Subsistence Livestock Farming

Main Areas

Factors Influencing Nomadic Pastoralism

  1. Grazing areas are free from animal pests especially tsetse flies for being dry and hot.
  2. Savannah grassland and semi-desert conditions which cause grass to sprout during rains and drying during the hot dry season.
  3. Availability of grass most times of the year in the bush and wooded savannah.
  4. Gentle or relatively flat terrain of the areas which makes it easy for the movement of animals from one place to another.
  5. Sparse population of N and N.E region due to harsh climatic conditions which encourages nomadic pastoralism because each community is able to occupy large tracts of land.
  6. Desert and semi-desert conditions which don’t favour agriculture making livestock rearing to be way of earning livelihood.
  7. Tradition of the people whereby animals are a sign of wealth and are used for paying dowry and slaughtered for festivals.

Characteristics of Pastoral Farming

Products

Problems

  1. Shortage of water and pasture due to long dry spell making animals to be of poor quality.
  2. Pests such as ticks and fleas which weaken animals and diseases such as east coast fever, foot and mouth and anthrax which cause heavy losses of stock.
  3. Overstocking causing overgrazing leading to severe erosion, poor pastures and poor quality animals which fetch low prices.
  4. Lack of extension and veterinary services due to insecurity and constant movement hindering improvement of animals reared.
  5. Low levels of education and culture leading to keeping animals for wealth and prestige making them to overstock leading to severe erosion, poor pastures and poor quality animals.
  6. Poor pastures resulting from poor soils with most areas consisting of tuft grasses and bare land.
  7. Cattle rustling which causes loss of live and destruction of property.
  8. Inaccessibility of pastoral areas due to poor roads making the farmers unable to get their animals to the market.
  9. They rear indigenous cattle such as zebu and boran which mature slowly, yield little milk and have poor quality beef.
  10. Exploitation by middlemen due to lack of market information.
  11. Small local market due to sparse population.
  12. Competition from national parks leading to conflicts.

Improvements in Pastoral Areas (Measures Taken By the Government to Improve Pastoral Farming)

  1. Encouraging pastoralists through the ministry of livestock to start ranching in order to improve the quality of their animals.
  2. Improvement of water supply in drier areas by sinking boreholes, wells, construction of dams, etc.
  3. Establishment of demonstration ranches to sensitize pastoralists on better methods of animal husbandry.
  4. Construction of cattle dips, and setting animal pest and disease organisations to control pests and diseases.
  5. Providing extension services to advice pastoralists and offer drug treatment to animals.
  6. Teaching pastoralists through formal education about advantages of keeping manageable sizes of herds.
  7. Encouraging them to keep smaller number of animals to solve the problem of quality.
  8. Ploughing and resowing pasture with more nourishing drought resistant grass.
  9. Purchasing pedigree animals and cross breeding with indigenous animals resulting in hybrid stock which is able to resist many tropical diseases, give more milk and better quality meet.
  10. b) Commercial Livestock Farming
  11. i) Dairy Farming

Characteristics

                                               Kenya

Types of dairy farming

  1. a) Lowland Dairy Farming
  1. b) Highland Commercial Dairy Farming

Rift valley

Characteristics

Central

Western

Eastern

Nyanza

Conditions Favouring Dairy Farming

Kenya Highlands

Physical

  1. The region experiences low temperatures ideal for survival of exotic breeds (averaging 18◦c).
  2. The areas receive high and well distributed rainfall which ensures abundant supply of natural pasture and water from permanent rivers.
  3. Fertile volcanic soils which have ensured there is quality nutritious cover of grass.

Human

  1. Well established infrastructure e.g. roads which ensures quick transportation of milk to processing plants.
  2. High population which offers ready market for dairy products.
  3. Availability of processing and storage facilities near dairy farms to transform milk into less perishable products which has increased the rate of milk production.
  4. Provision of veterinary services and demonstration farms by the government which promotes rearing of high quality dairy breeds.

Denmark

Physical Factors

  1. Low lying relatively flat land which makes it ideal for dairy farming.
  2. Low lying relatively flat land which makes it ideal for dairy farming.
  3. Cool to warm temperature (0.4-16.6◦c) which facilitates the growth of natural pasture.
  4. Soils derived from boulder clay which is constantly enriched with animal manure and fertilizer which are good for the growing of fodder crops.
  5. Availability of a variety of fodder crops, manufactured feeds and supplements leading to high milk production.

Human Factors

Mechanisation of most dairy farms e.g. machines for milking are widely used.

Big market for dairy products locally and in other European countries due to a high purchasing power.

Availability of adequate capital and modern technology which has improved production and storage of dairy products.

Extensive use of artificial insemination which improves the quality of breeds making dairy farming a success.

Rapid growth of co-operative movement which are very competitive causing farmers to strive to get products of high quality.

Organisation of Dairy farming

Kenya

Denmark

Dairy farming is carried out by individual farmers in large scale.

It’s carried out for commercial purposes.

The breeds reared are Danish Holstein which is the traditional cow, Friesian (75%), Ayrshire and channel island cows.

Livestock are kept indoors for between 4-5 months during winter.

Farmers mainly depend on fodder than natural grass because temperatures are cold most of the year.

There are thousands of co-operatives provide processing, credit, advisory and research services.

Dairy farming is highly mechanised with machines such as combined harvesters, Lorries, ploughs and seed drills being provided by co-operatives.

Processing of Milk

Marketing

Kenya

Denmark

Problems Facing Dairy Farming in Kenya

  1. Small scale dairy farms face stiff competition from other cash crops like tea, coffee, vegetables and passion fruits, etc.
  2. The cost of inputs is very high which has minimised mechanisation and resulted into to low profit margins.
  3. Impassability of roads during the rainy season making milk delivery difficult.
  4. Excessive droughts which result in inadequate feeds which causes temporary milk shortage.
  5. Risk of cattle pests and diseases which has restricted dairy farming to Kenyan highlands.
  6. Poor management of co-operatives at grassroots resulting to delayed payments which kills farmers’ morale.
  7. Shortage of proper storage facilities at the collecting centres such as cooling plants causing milk to go bad before it gets to processing factories.
  8. AI services have been privatised making them very expensive and inaccessible to many small scale farmers resulting in low quality breeds and hence low milk production.
  9. Lack of training especially to small scale farmers.

Improvements (How Govt Is Laying Emphasis to Dairy Farming)

  1. Appointing supervisory boards for dairy co-operatives.
  2. Extending credit facilities to farmers through co-operatives.
  3. Holding agricultural shows to educate farmers on good dairy farm management.
  4. Setting up demonstration farms which breed high quality bulls to be released to farmers.
  5. Establishing well maintained roads for delivery of milk.
  6. Carrying out extensive research on possible solutions to diseases.

                                                 Denmark

Rare incidents of diseases such as mastitis and Salmonella Dublin.

It’s expensive to run farms in winter when animals are kept indoors and fed on fodder.

Dairy animals emit a considerable amount of carbon dioxide and methane which contributes to green house effect.

Reduced market share due to competition from other dairy producing countries and restrictions.

Occasional spells of drought causing a considerable drop in milk production.

Role of Dairy farming to the Economies

  1. Earns Kenya foreign exchange by exporting milk and dairy products.
  2. Saves some foreign exchange.
  3. Government also earns revenue by taxation from the sale of dairy products which is used to fund various development projects.
  4. Provides employment in dairy farms, milk processing plants and dairy related industries.
  5. Gives farmers an income which has alleviated poverty and raised living standards.
  6. Promoted development of industries such as milk processing plants, input manufacturing industries which has created more employment and raised per capita income.
  7. Promotes good health and nutrition by providing proteins, fats and vitamins that are essential for human growth and development.
  8. Has led to improvement of infrastructure in Kenya by government improving existing roads to ease milk delivery.

Comparison

Similarities

Differences

  1. ii) Beef Farming

Conditions Favouring Beef Farming

Kenya

Physical Factors

Human Factors

                                                       Argentina

Physical Factors

Human Factors

                                            

 

Organisation of Beef Farming

Kenya

Argentina

Marketing of Beef Products

Kenya

Argentina

Role to the Economies

  1. It’s a source of foreign exchange when beef and beef products are exported.
  2. Provides employment to people working in ranches, slaughter houses, butcheries etc.
  3. Saves foreign exchange by supplying beef for local consumption.
  4. Provides income to farmers and butchers raising their standard of living.
  5. Has promoted development of industries by providing raw materials e.g. shoe making.
  6. The governments earn revenue from tax levied on beef products.
  7. In Argentina it has led to infrastructural improvement from the interior to the coast to ease transportation.

Problems Facing Beef Farming

Kenya

Argentina

Comparison

Similarities

Differences

  1. Mixed Farming

Characteristics

  1. Crops are grown and animals reared on the same farm.
  2. Portion of land is reserved for animal pasture.
  3. Farms are moderate in size.
  4. Crop residue is used for fodder.
  5. Manure from animals is used to fertilise the soil.

Advantages

  1. When crop fails or prices fluctuate the farmer can depend on livestock and vice versa.
  2. The farmer gets income continually.
  3. Income is larger.
  4. Farmer is busy throughout the year.
  5. Using crop residue as fodder saves money for buying it.
  6. Using manure from animals ensures sustained crop production and also saves money that would be used to buy manure.
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