Category Archives: Teachers’ Resources

Write your name and admission number in the spaces provided
Sign and write the date of examination in the spaces provided above
AnswerALL questions in this paper
All answers must be written in the spaces provided in this paper
Candidates should check the question paper to ascertain that all the pages are printed as indicated and no questions are missing.

For Examiners Use Only

Questions	Maximum score	Candidates score
1	20
2	10
3	30
Total Score	60

FUNCTIONAL WRITING (20mks)

You are organizing a party for your brother who has graduated with first class honours from the University. The Area Women representative has been invited as the guest of honour. Your mother has assigned you the responsibility of preparing the meal for 50 guests.

Prepare a recipe for the dish. (12 marks)

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

b) Write a thank note that you would give to the women representative. (8 marks)

CLOZE TEST

Fill in the blanks with the most appropriate word (10mks)

We need to start reading more. (1)………………………………………encourages more creative thinking, keeps the (2)………………………….fresh and stimulated in ways nothing else can.Reading awakens a (3)………………………………… imagination and inhibits the brain (4)…………………………….rotting, as is evident with(5)……………………………. so-called political elite. If you neglect the pot, (6)………………boils over and extinguishes the fire. The youth (7)………………………….. should ignite a love for reading (8)………………………….of engaging in nonsensical issues they are normally caught up in. it is said a reader lives a thousand lives (9)………………………………. they die, but one (10) ………………………. never reads lives only once.

ORAL SKILLS
Read the poem below and answer the questions that follow:-

Made for pure pleasure

Like buds two wonderful to name

Miracles unfold

And Catherine wheels begin to flame

Like a whirling marigold

Rockets and Roman candles make

An orchard of the sky

Whence magic trees their petals shake

Upon each gazing eye

Describe the rhyme scheme of this poem. (2marks)

Using examples, explain how rhythm has been achieved in this poem. (4 Marks)

What kind of facial expressions would you exhibit when reciting the poem? (2mks

Which words would you stress in line one and why? (2 marks)

B The underlining indicates the stressed word in the sentences below. Briefly explain what each sentence means. (3 Marks)

i) David hit Joan today

……..……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

ii) David hit Joan today.

……..……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………

iii) David hit Joan today.

C (i) Provide a homophone for the following words. (4 mrks)

won–

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

wood –

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

(ii)Provide a word in which the letter given below is silent. (2mrks)

D) Indicate the intonation in the following sentences. (3 Marks)
How often do you visit your mother?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Have you lost your way?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

She is writing her exams.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

E) Identify the odd one out in each of the following sets according to the pronunciation of the underlined sound .
Enough, staff, dough, graph

Depot, rapport, report, debut

Hours, honour, heir, heifer

Prison, reason, censor, season

Sure, scissor, store, scare

F) A teacher of English was in class during a reading session. She realized that the students had poor reading habits. Mention three of these habits the teacher might have observed. (3 Marks)

G: Identify the silent letters in the following words. (2 Marks)

poignant-

boutique-

MOKASA 2,

2019 PAPER 1 MARKING SCHEME

Imagine you are the secretary of your school’s journalism club. Recently you held a meeting whose agenda included revamping the club, starting a school magazine, starting an interclass writing competition to nurture writing talent. There were some matters that were followed up from the previous meeting. During the meeting, the treasurer and another member sent their apologies while two members failed to turn up without any explanation. The club patron was present during the meeting. Write down the minutes you took during the meeting. 20 marks

FORMAT:

Title – 1mk (Capture name of club, date, time, and venue)
Present – ½ mk
Apologies – ½ mk
Absent – ½ mk
In attendance – ½ mk
Preliminaries – ½ mk
Confirmation – ½ mk
Adjournment – ½ mk
Signing off – ½ mk

Total – 5 marks

CONTENT

Confirmation of Minutes – 2mk
Matters Arising – 2mks
Revamping club – 2mks
Starting magazine – 2mks
Starting interclass competition – 2mks
O.B – 1mk

LANGUAGE

A – 4mks
B – 3mks
C – 2
D – 1mk

CLOZE TEST.

frightens
faced
in
however
of
The
approach
assignment
exactly
outline

ORAL SKILLS
Describe the rhyme scheme of this poem. (2 marks)

The above poem has a regular rhyme scheme of aa bb cc dd e eff gg hh ii that can be predicted.

Identify any two sound patterns used in the poem above.(2 marks)

There is an aspect of rhyme weep blow

Sleep, snow

Consonance has also been used in the poem, I am the gentle showers of autumn rain
Alliteration has also been used in the poem, I am not there. I do not die/ Of beautiful birds in circling flight. (any 2 points)
How would you perform the last line of the poem? (3 marks)

I would use a falling intonation to indicate finality while using my hands to gesture at an imaginary grave to show I did not die/ I would speak at a slow pace to create emphasis.

Which words would you stress in the first line? (2 marks)

I would stress the words not, stand, grave and weep since they are the content words/ words that give meaning.

b) Your school is participating in a debate on the motion, “Technology has brought more harm than good.” How would your listeners lead to your failure in presentation? (4 marks)

My listeners would lead to my failure if the keep walking in and out of the debate room.
If the listeners keep murmuring as I speak
If the listeners fail to maintain a meaningful eye,contact with me as I speak.
If the listeners keep fidgeting.
If the listeners doze off during my presentation.(Any 4 points)

c) State whether the following sentences would be said in a falling or raising intonation? (3 marks)
Will you take tea or coffee today? Falling intonation.
He who laughs last laughs the longest falling intonation.

You don’t have to leave immediately, do you? Rising intonation

d) Underline the silent letter in each of the following words. (3 marks)
Parliamenti
Debris. s

Subtleb

e) Complete the list below by providing another word pronounced in the same way as the ones below. (3 marks)

Prays praise preys

Bight byte bite

Sees seas seize

f) You recently attended an interview at Upendo Supermarket for the position of an accounts clerk, unfortunately you were not successful. What would have led to your failure? (4 marks)

I might have failed to maintain a meaningful eye contact with the interviewers
I might have arrived late for the interview
I may have been inappropriately dressed for the interview
I may have failed to present all my documents when asked to
I might have spoken negatively/ill about my previous employer/colleagues which might have painted a negative picture about me.
I might have failed to answer all the questions as asked/ I might have lied during the interview.
I might have failed to maintain a meaning eye contact/ upright posture during the interview.
I might have sat before being offered a seat. (any 4 points)

f) You have just witnessed an accident. A matatu rammed into a stationary truck. Many passengers have been seriously injured. The driver has requested you to call Kona Mbaya Police station and inform them about the accident. Complete the following telephone conversation between you and the police officer on duty. (4 marks)

You:Hello…! Hello! Is this Kona Mbaya police station?(1 mark)

Police officer: Yes. This is Kona Mbaya Police Station. Constable Kiraka speaking. Can I help you?

You: Yes, please. There has been a terrible accident.

Police officer: May I know who is calling please?

You:I am Mr. Tumbo Mali; I’m calling to report an accident.(1 mark)

Police officer: Where has the accident taken place?

You: Along Kona Mbaya- Majengo road.

Police officer: What happened?

You:A matatu rammed into a stationary truck.(1 mark)

Police officer: Really! Are there any casualties?

You:Yes, many passengers have been seriously injured. (1 mark)

Police officer: Don’t worry; we will be there as soon as possible. Meanwhile call the ambulance and alert Kona Mbaya hospital to be ready for casualties. Thank you very much Mr. Tumbo Mali for calling.

Teachers' Resources

GAS LAWS PHYSICS NOTES

October 5, 2025 Maverick John Leave a comment

Chapter Ten

GAS LAWS

Boyle’s Law

It states that the pressure of a fixed mass of a gas is inversely proportional to its volume, provided the temperature is kept constant.
Stated in symbols;

P α ¹/_V OR P= k x ¹/_V

So, PV = constant

How to proof the Boyles law

Apparatus

Thick-walled J-shaped glass tube with one end closed, oil, Bourdon gauge, foot pump, meter rule.

Procedure

Set up the apparatus as shown above
Connect the foot-pump to the apparatus and with the tap open, pump in air until the oil rises a small but measurable height, then close the tap.
Allow the air to adjust to room temperature, then read the value of pressure on the gauge and the height h of air column, which represents volume of the air (glass tube has uniform cross-sectional area).
Repeat the experiment by varying values of pressure to obtain at least five more readings.

Record your results in table

Table 10.1

Pressure p(Pa)	Volume h (cm)	¹/_v (¹/_h)cm-1	pv

Pressure, p(x 10⁵Pa)	2.00	2.50	3.00	3.50	4.00	4.50
Volume, V (m³)	0.025	020	0.017	0.014	0.012	0.011

Using your results in table plot a graph of:
(i) P against V.

(ii) P against ¹/_v. Determine the slope.
(iii) PV against P.

Results and Conclusion

The experiment show that an increase in pressure of a fixed mass of a gas causes a decrease in its volume.

The sketches below show the relationship between pressure P and volume V of a fixed mass of gas.

The graph of P against V is a smooth curve while that of P against1/v is a straight line passing through the origin. That of PV against P is a straight line parallel to the x-axis. Since PV = constant;

P I V I = P 2 V 2 = constant, for any given mass of a gas.

Example 1

The diagram below shows an air bubble of volume 2.0 cm³ at the bottom of a lake 40 m deep.

What will be its volume just below the surface S if the atmospheric pressure is equivalent to a height of 10 m of water?

Solution

10m height = 1 atm.
40 m height = 4 atm.

Pressure PI at the bottom = (l + 4) =5 atm
Pressure P, at surface = 1 atm
Volume V: at bottom = 2 cm³

By Boyle’s law, PIV_I = P₂V₂

5 x 2 = 1 X V₂

V₂= 10

Volume just below surface is 10 cm³,

Example 2

The volume V of a gas at pressure P is reduced to ³/₈V without change of temperature. Determine the new pressure of the gas.
Solution

PV = constant
P1V1, =P₂V₂

P1V1 = P₂ x ³/₈V₁

P₂ =⁸/₃P₁

Example 3

A column of air 26 cm long is trapped by mercury thread 5 cm long as shown in (a). When the tube is inverted as in figure (b), the air column becomes 30 cm long. What is the value of atmospheric pressure?

Solution

In (a), gas pressure = atm pressure + hƥg,
In (b), gas pressure = atm. pressure – hƥg,
where ƥ is the density of mercury.

From Boyle’s law;

P₁ V₁ = P₂V₂

Let the atmospheric pressure be height ‘x’ of mercury.
So, (x + 5) 0.26 == (x – 5) 0.30

0.26x + 1.30 == 0.3x – 1.5

2.8 = O.04x

:. x = 2.8

0.04

=70cm

If experiment above is repeated at different temperatures, similar curves are obtained as in figure each is called an isothermal curve.

When P is plotted against ~ for each of the isothermals, the figure below is obtained.

Sample questions

On the axes provided sketch the P-V graph for a gas obeying Boyle’s law.

2003 Q24 P1
On the axes provided in, sketch a graph of pressure(p) against reciprocal of volume(¹/_V) for a fixed mass of an ideal gas at constant temperature.

¹/_V

The pressure acting on a gas in a container was changed steadily while the temperature of the gas maintained constant. The value of volume V of the gas was measured for various values of pressure. The graph in figure 9 shows the relation between the pressure, p and the reciprocal of volume 1

Suggest how the temperature of the gas could be kept constant
Given that the relation between the pressure P₁ and the volume, V₁ of the gas is given by PV = k When k is a constant, use the graph to determine the value of k.
What physical quantity does k represent? (4 marks)
State one precaution you would take when performing such an experiment (1 mark)

(c) A gas occupies a volume of 4000 litres at a temperature of 37⁰C and normal atmospheric pressure. Determine the new volume of the gas if it heated at constant pressure to a temperature of 67⁰C (normal atmospheric pressure P= 1.01 x 10⁵ pa)

An air bubble is released at the bottom of a tall jar containing a liquid. The height of the liquid column is 80cm. The volume of the bubble increases from 5 cm³ at the bottom of the liquid to 1.15 cm³ at the top. Figure below shows the variation of pressure, P, on the bubble with the reciprocal of volume 1/v³ as it rises in the liquid.

(i) State the reason why the volume increases as the bubble rises in the liquid column (1 mark

(ii) From the graph, determine the pressure on the bubble:

(I) at the bottom of liquid column; (2 marks)

(II) at the top of the liquid column (1 mark )

(iii) Hence determine the density of the liquid in kgm³ (3 marks)

(iv) What is the value of the atmospheric pressure of the surrounding? (1 mark)

(c) A rubber tube is inflated to pressure of 2.7 x 10⁵ Pa and volume 3800 cm³at a temperature of 25^◦C. It is then taken to another place where the temperature is 15⁰C and the pressure 2.5 x 10⁵ pa. Determine the new volume. (4 Marks)

Charles’ Law

It states that the volume of a fixed mass of gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature if the pressure is kept constant.

The set-up in figure can be used to demonstrate the relationship between temperature
and volume of a given mass of a gas at constant pressure.

The flask is grasped firmly and the water index observed.

The water index rises higher when the flask is held and falls when the hands are withdrawn, showing that the volume of gas increases when its temperature is raised.

EXPERIMENT: To investigate the relationship between volume and temperature of a given mass of gas at constant pressure

Apparatus

Capillary tube sealed at one end, cone, sulphuric acid, thermometer, rule, and stirrer, source of heat, retort stand, rubber band, and water bath.

Procedure

Introduce concentrated sulphuric acid deep into the glass tube to trap air in the tube.

Attach the tube, thermometer and the ruler using rubber band.

Assemble the apparatus as shown in figure above.

Record the room temperature and the corresponding height h of air in the tube.

Heat the bath and record the temperature and the height at suitable temperature intervals in table below.

Temp (˚c)
Height h(cm)

Note:

(i) The sulphuric acid index serves as a pointer to the volume of the gas on the scale as well as a drying agent for the air.

(ii) Pressure of the trapped air is the same as the atmospheric pressure plus pressure due to the acid index. This remains constant throughout the experiment

(iii) Before taking the readings. Stir the bath so that the temperature of the gas is equal to that of the bath.

Plot a graph of volume (height h cm) against temperature.

Observations

As the temperature rises, the height h (volume) also increases.

The graph is a straight line, indicating proportional changes in volume and temperature.

the graph does not pass through the origin.
If the graph is extrapolated it cuts the temperature axis at about -273⁰ At this temperature the volume of the gas is assumed to be zero.
This temperature -273 ˚C. at which the volume of a gas is assumed to be zero is the lowest temperature a gas can fall to. It is therefore called absolute

The scale of temperature based on the absolute zero is called the absolute scale or Kelvin scale of temperature.

A plot of volume against absolute temperature gives a straight line through the origin, as shown in figure

Note:

It is impossible to get to absolute zero for gases because they condense at fairly higher temperatures.

In symbols, Charles ‘law can be stated as follows;
V αT or V = kT, where k is a constant.

Hence, ^V₁/_T1 = ^V2/_T2constant

Note:

This formula is only applicable when T is expressed in Kelvin.

Relation Between Celsius and Absolute Scale

Figure 10.12 relates the absolute (Kelvin) scale to the Celsius scale.

The zero Kelvin (0 K) corresponds to -273°C while 0˚C corresponds to 273 K.

It follows that to change from Celsius to Kelvin, we add 273 to the Celsius temperature, i.e.;

= (T + 273) K

Example 3

The temperature of a gas is -42 ⁰C. What is this temperature on the Kelvin scale?

Solution

Example 4

0.02 m³ of a gas af27 °C is heated at constant pressure until the volume is 0.03 m³. Calculate the final temperature of the gas in “C.

Solution

Example5

A mass of air of volume is 750 cm³ is heated at constant pressure from 10 °C to 100°C. What is the final volume of the air?

Solution

a)What is meant by absolute zero temperature? (1 mark)

b) 10 shows a set up to investigate the relationship between temperature and volume for a certain gas.

b) State two factors that are kept constant, in order to determine the relationship. (2 marks)
c) The graph in Fig. 11 shows the relationship between volume and temperature for the experiment.

(i)What was the volume of the gas at 0⁰C? (1 mark)

(ii)At what temperature would the volume of the gas be zero? (1 mark)

(iii) Explain why the temperature in part (ii) above cannot be achieved. (2 marks)

d) A sealed gas cylinder contains 300cm³ of certain gas at a temperature of 25⁰C, and at a pressure of 9.5x 10⁴pa the gas in the cylinder was then cooled to 10⁰

Determine the new pressure of the gas in the cylinder. (4 marks)

2009 Q13 P1

State what is meant by absolute zero temperature (Zero Kelvin or -273^◦C). (1 mark)

Pressure law

It states that the pressure of a fixed mass of gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature, provided the volume is kept constant.

EXPERIMENT: To investigate the relationship between the pressure and the temperature of a fixed mass of gas at constant volume

Apparatus

Round-bottomed flask, pressure gauge, water bath, heater, thermometer.

Procedure

Set up the apparatus as shown in figure above.
Record the initial temperature and pressure readings.
Heat the water bath gently and obtain at least seven more pairs of readings at suitable temperature intervals.
Record your results in table 10.3.

Table 10.3

Temp (c
Pressure(pa)
Pressure Temp

Note:

The air in the tube connecting the gauge to the flask may be at a lower temperature than the air in the flask. This tube should therefore be as short as possible.

Observations

It is observed that increase in temperature causes an increase in pressure.

A plot of pressure against temperature gives the graph shown in figure.

Graph of pressure against temperature

When the graph is extrapolated, it cuts the temperature axis at -273°C, the absolute zero.
Figure shows the same graph of an absolute temperature scale.

On the absolute scale, the pressure of a gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature.

This conclusion is summed in pressure law which

In symbols;

PαT (V constant)

Or P = kT, where k is constant

So P₁ = P₂

, T₁ T2

Example 6

A cylinder contains oxygen at 0⁰C, and 1 atmosphere pressure. What will be the pressure in
the cylinder if the temperature rises to 100 °C?

Solution

= 1.37 atmosphere

Example 7

At 20°C, the pressure of a gas is 50 cm of mercury. At what temperature would the pressure of the gas fall to 10cm of mercury?

Solution

= 58.6 K (or -214.4 “C)

a) Figure 6 shows a simple set up for pressure law apparatus.

Describe how the apparatus may be used to verify pressure law. Initial reading of pressure and temperatures are recorded

Water is heated and gently stirred;

Values f pressures and temperature are recorded to intervals;

Temperature is converted to K and atmospheric pressure p added to P;

Graph of pressure p against temperature (K) Plotted giving straight line;

Equation of State

A general gas law relating the changes in pressure, volume and the absolute temperature can
be derived from the three gas laws.

Consider a fixed mass of gas which is being changed from state A to state B through an
intermediate state C, as shown in figure.

Charles’ law Boyle’s law

From A to C, the gas is heated at constant pressure PI’ By Charles’ law;

V₁ = V_c

T₁ T₂

Volume V_c in state c, V_c = V₁T₂

T₁

From C to B, the gas pressure is changed from P₁to P₂ at constant temperature T₂. By Boyle’s law,

P₁V_c = P₂V₂

Vc = P₂V₂

P₁

Equating the two

V₁T₂ = P₂V₂

T₁ P₁

Rearranging the equation

V₁ P₁= P₂V₂

T₁ T₂

In general, PV = k, where k is a constant.

This is known as the equation of state, in which k depends on the type and quantity of the gas.
The equation changes to when the amount of gas is 1mole. Constant R is same for all gases, and is called the universal gas constant.

Example 8

A mass of 1 200 cm³ of oxygen at 27°C and a pressure 1.2 atmosphere is compressed until its volume is 600cm³and its pressure is 3.0 atmosphere. What is the Celsius temperature of the gas after compression?

Solution

102˚C

Gas Laws and Kinetic Theory

If the volume of a vessel containing a fixed mass of gas is halved, the number of molecules per unit volume will be doubled. The number of collisions per unit time, and therefore the rate of change of momentum, will also be doubled. Consequently, halving the volume of the gas
doubles the pressure, which is the import of the Boyle’s law.

Charles’ Law and Kinetic Theory

When a gas is heated, the kinetic energy and therefore the velocity of the molecules increases.
As the temperature rises, the molecules move faster. If the volume of the container were constant,
the pressure on the walls would increase due to greater rate of change of momentum per unit time. But since Charles’ law requires that the pressure be constant, then the volume must
increase accordingly so that although the molecules are moving faster, the number of collisions at the walls of the container per unit time is reduced, since the distance between the walls is increased by increasing the volume.

Pressure Law and Kinetic Theory

In gases, pressure is as a result of bombardment of the walls of the container by the gas molecules. When the molecules of the gas bombard and rebound from the walls of the container, a change of momentum takes place. The number of bombardments per unit time constitutes a rate of change of momentum, which according to Newton’s second law of motion, constitutes a force. This force per unit area emerges as the pressure of the gas.

When a gas is heated, its molecules gain kinetic energy and move about faster. If the volume of the container is constant, the molecules will bombard the walls many more times per unit time, and with greater momenta. The total rate of change of momentum will therefore increase. The resulting force per unit area, which is the pressure, will increase.

Limitations of Gas laws

When explaining the gas laws using the kinetic theory, both the size of molecules and the intermolecular forces are assumed to be negligible.

Real gases have molecules with definite volumes and therefore the idea of zero volume or zero pressure is not real. Real gases get liquefied before zero volume is reached.

This departure from the gas laws is so particularly true at low temperatures and high pressures. A gas that would obey the gas laws completely is called ideal or perfect gas.

Teachers' Resources

KCPE Latest Revision Exams

October 5, 2025 Maverick John Leave a comment

2023 KCPE Revision Exams Free; JESMA, Signal, Distinction, Highflyer, Soaring High

Teachers' Resources

Grade Four CBC Home Work, Assignments Free Downloads

October 5, 2025 Maverick John Leave a comment

Grade 4 CBC Home Work, Assignments Free Downloads

G4 SST ET3 TOPICAL HOMEWORK.pdf
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G4 ENG ET3 TOPICAL HOMEWORK.pdf
G4 CRE ET3 TOPICAL HOMEWORK.pdf
G4 AGRIC ET3 TOPICAL HOMEWORK.pdf

Teachers' Resources

Best KCSE Comprehensive Predictions (All Subjects)

October 5, 2025 Maverick John Leave a comment

Get the Best KCSE Comprehensive Predictions for All Subjects here.

Increase your chances of success with the most accurate KCSE comprehensive predictions for all subjects. Boost your exam preparation now with our free KCSE revision materials.

AGRICULTURE KCSEMOCKS

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BIOLOGY PAPER 2 KCSE PAST PAPERS

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The_manipulated_man

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KCSE PREDICTION 6

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Teachers' Resources

BIOLOGY ECOLOGY NOTES IN PDF

October 5, 2025 Maverick John Leave a comment

ECOLOGY

This term ecology is derived from the Greek word oikos which means a house or a place to live hence ecology is a branch of biology that deals with the study of relationships between organisms and their environment.

Concepts of ecology

Autecology – it’s the study which involves a single species.
Synecology – it’s the study of many species.
Biosphere – it’s the part of earth and atmosphere inhabited by living organisms. Also called ecosphere.
Habitat – this is the particular place in the environment where an organism is found. Habitats are categorized into terrestrial (land) habitats, aquatic (water) habitats.
Ecological niche– it’s the position that an organism occupies in a habitat.
Population – refers to all members of a given species in a particular time e.g. population of lions in Tsavo national park., in 2007
Community – refers to all organisms belonging to different species thatinteract in the same habitat e.g. pond, forest communities.
Ecosystem– it’s a natural unit composed of living and non- living components whose interactions result in a self sustaining system hence ecosystem is made up of communities.
Biomass– it’s the total dry weight of living organisms at a particular trophic level (feeding level) or per unit area e.g. total weight of maize crop per hectare.
Carrying capacity– it’s the maximum number of organisms an area can comfortably support without depletion of the available resources.
Factors in an ecosystem

They are divided into biotic and abiotic factors

Abiotic factors
They are non living environmental factors which affect the distribution of organisms e.g.

Light

Affect living organisms in terms of intensity, quality (wave length/ colour) and duration.
Light intensity and quality affect the rate of photosynthesis, flowering and germination in plants.
In animals affects migration, hibernation and reproduction e.g. lion hunts at dawn or dusk to avoid being seen by their prey.
A photographic light meter is used to measure intensity
Seechi disc measures light penetration in water.

N.B (i) at the top of the forest the trees form a continuous thick cover of leaves and branches called canopy. This canopy filters the light allowing only little light to pass through to the bottom of the forest. Some plants such as ferns, mosses and liverworts are found at the bottom of the forest.

(ii) Some types of plants grow on trees where they get enough light for photosynthesis. They are called epiphytes e.g. orchids.

Temperature

Biochemical processes of most animals function efficiently within a narrow range of temperatures.
Very low temperatures may inactivate enzymes
Very high temperature denatures enzymes.

Atmospheric pressure

It’s the mass exerted by air on the surface of earth.
Atmospheric pressure affects the amount of oxygen in the air.
At sea level the air pressure is high hence more oxygen available.
In high attitude areas the air pressure is low hence less oxygen available.

Humidity

This is the amount of water vapour in the atmosphere
At low humidity plants and animals lose a lot of water through transpiration and sweating respectively and the opposite is true at high humidity.
Wind
It increases the rate of water loss from organism.
In desert areas winds aid in formation of sand dunes which becomes the habitats for growth of desert plants.
Wind causes wave formation in lakes, ocean which enhances aeration of water.
It also disperses spores, seeds and influences dispersal and migration of flying animals.
Salinity
It’s the degree of salt concentration in water. Aquatic habitats are divided into three e.
–Fresh water habitat– has very little or almost no salt e.g. fresh rivers, lakes etc
-Marine– have high salt concentration e.g. ocean, seas etc
-Estuarine– found at the point where fresh water rivers join salt water lakes. Salt concentration depends on tides.
Salinity determines the type of organisms found in an ecosystem e.g. tilapia fish is found in fresh water habitats only while shark is found in salty water habitat like oceans.
PH
This is the degree of acidity or alkalinity. It influences the distribution of plants and animals in soil and fresh water ponds
Some plants thrive well in acidic conditions while others in alkaline or neutral conditions
Biotic factors
They are all the living organisms in an environment and their effects on each other.
Biotic interrelationships
Competition
This is where two different species require a common resource whose availability is limited. These resources include nutrients, space, light or mates
Competition between individuals of the same species is known as intraspecific while that between individuals of different species is known as interspecific competition.
In such competition for a limited resource, organisms with suitable structural and behavioural adaptations survive while others without such adaptations may die or migrate.
Competition is only found in organisms in the same ecological niche e.g. there may not be any competition between an elephant and a rabbit because they don’t depend on the same food.
Predation
This is the food relationship in which one organism kills another for food and feeds on it either wholly or in part.
Organism that kills another for food is a predator while the one killed is the prey.
Adaptations of predators
Structural adaptations
Rattle snakes locate their prey with special heat sensitive organs located near their eyes and they kill small birds and mammals by injecting them with toxins through their fangs.
Praying mantis has enlarged forelimbs with spikes for capturing its prey. It feedson small insects such as grasshoppers.
Birds e.g. eagles, hawks, kites have sharp eyesight, fast flight, modified beaks and talons.
Lion which preys on the antelopes has strong jaws with carnassial teeth, large claws on strong forelimbs and it is fast in movement.
Behavioural adaptations
Lion moves against the wind while stalking the prey.

ColourCamouflage

This involves the body colour of the organism blending well with the background environment to conceal the organism to a great extent e.g. the spotted pattern of the leopard blends well with the background colour of the bushes and trees concealing the leopard from the prey.
Adaptations of prey
Structural adaptations
Herbivores e.g. zebra have large eyes on the sides of the head which gives them a wide field of vision. This enables them to keep track of their enemies from far and therefore take precautions.
Antelopes and gazelles have swift movement to escape from predatorsBehavioural adaptations
A stick insect mimics a dry stick.
Confrontational display in porcupine.Colour Camouflage
The stripes of zebra and the spotted pattern of giraffe.
Predation brings about biological control e.g. if there were too many locusts destroying crops then several bird species that prey on them can be introduced into the habitat to reduce the locusts.
Parasitism
It’s the relationship in which an organism obtains nutrients from another live organism without killing it.
This organism which lives on or in another organism is called a parasite while the one from which nutrients are obtained is called the host.
When a parasite lives inside the body of the host it is called endoparasite g. tapeworms.
When the parasite lives on the outside of the host it is called ecto-parasiteg. ticks
Parasites weaken their hosts, cause or transmit diseases which may kill their host.
Symbiosis
This is association between organisms of different species in which both organisms benefit. e.g.

-Rhizobium bacteria which lives in the root nodules of leguminous plants.

The plants benefit from the nitrates fixed by rhizobium bacteria while bacteria benefit from shelter and carbohydrates provided by the plants.
-A lichen is an association between blue -green algae and a fungus. The algae carries out photosynthesis which provides the fungus with carbohydrates. The fungus provides the moisture and a place for attachment to the algae.
Saprophytism
This is a type of nutrition where organisms obtain nutrients from dead organic matter hence causing decomposition e.g. fungi and bacteria.
Decomposition releases nutrients into the ecosystem which are then made available to other living organisms.
Nitrogen cycle
It refers to the cycling of nitrogen and its compounds in nature.
Nitrogen is essential in the manufacture of proteins by organisms. Plants absorb nitrogen in the form of nitrates and assimilate it into plant proteins either by eating plants or other animals.
Nitrogen fixation is the process by which atmospheric nitrogen is converted into a form that can be utilized by plant by:

Biological nitrogen – fixation

It’s done by nitrogen fixing micro- organisms. These are ;
(i)Symbiotic nitrogen fixing- bacteria known as Rhizobium bacteria found in the root nodules of the leguminous plants.
(ii)Non- symbiotic (free living) bacteria found in the soil such as AzotobacterandClostridium
(iii)Some algae e.g. Anabaenachlorella and These organisms fix nitrogen into ammonia which is then converted to nitrates.
Non- biological nitrogen fixation – it’s achieved by lightening.
-During thunder storms lightning energy combines atmospheric nitrogen with O₂ to form nitrous acid and nitric acid. These are later converted to nitrates.
Nitrification
It’s the process of oxidizing ammonia formed from nitrogenous wastes contained in the decaying tissues. This is done by several nitrifying bacteria e.g.
Nitrosomonas and Nitrococcus – oxidize ammonia to nitrites (NO₂)
Nitrobacter bacteria which converts Nitrites (NO₂) into Nitrates (NO₃)
Denitrification
It’s the chemical process in which the nitrate in the soil are reduced to free nitrogen and released to the atmosphere. The organisms involved are Bacteria such as Thiobacillus, Pseudomonasand fungi.

Energy flow in an ecosystem

The energy from the sun is trapped by green plants for photosynthesis. Green plants are known as producers in an ecosystem.
Green plants are eaten by animals (herbivores) called primary consumers because they obtain chemical energy directly from the plants.
Herbivores are in turn eaten by carnivores (secondary consumers) e.g. dog.
The secondary consumers are eaten by tertiary consumers e.g. leopard.
When the leopard dies it is eaten by the vulture (quaternary consumer). These feeding levels i.e. producers and consumer levels are referred to as trophic levels.
When living organisms die, they are decomposed by bacteria and fungi which are referred to as
Food chains
It’s the flow of energy from producers to consumers in an ecosystem. It’s a linear representation of energy flow from a producer to other organisms.
There are three main levels that the energy must pass through in a food chain. They are referred to as trophic levels.
Trophic means nourishment hence they are also called nutritional levels. They are:
Producers – they are capable of making their own food by trapping energy from the sun.
Consumers – they depend on the producers for their food directly or indirectly e.g.

– Primary consumer – these are plant eating organisms e.g. filter feeders in water, herbivores and omnivores.

-Secondary consumers – small carnivores e.g. insects, spiders, lizards e.t.c.

-Tertiary consumers – large carnivores like lions, leopards, sharks e.t.c

Decomposers – it’s made of saprophytic organisms. They act on dead remains of organisms in all the other levels. When they are included in a food chain they are usually placed at the end.

N.B The amount of energy passed on by a trophic level to another is always less than the amount of energy that the trophic level received.

This is due to the loss and usage of energy e.g. some energy in animals is lost as heat energy in breath, urine and faeces

Energy flow in an ecosystem

NB The arrow in the food chain and food wed shows the direction of energy flow.

Examples of food chains

Grass Grasshopper Bird

Grass Grasshopper Bird Mongoose Wild dog

(Producer) (Primary consumer) (Secondary consumer) (Tertiary consumer) (Quaternaryconsumer)

Bacteria and Fungi

(Decomposers)

Food webs

It’s composed of all possible food chains in a given ecosystem i.e. it’s made of several interconnecting food chains
System of food chains that are linked to one another

NB In every ecosystem there are consumers that feed on dead organisms e.g. scavengers and detrivores.

Scavengers are carnivores that feed on dead bodies e.g. vultures, hyenas
Detrivores are organisms that feed on dead plant material which is undergoing decomposition e.g. termites, cockroaches, earthworms e.t.c
Ecological pyramids
They are diagrammatic representations that show the number of organisms, the amount of matter and energy at each trophic level in a food chain.
The producers are found at the base of pyramid followed by the primary, secondary, tertiary and quartenary consumers.
Ecological pyramids are important because they can be used to show the efficient use of energy in a community.

These pyramids are:

Pyramid of numbers
This shows the relationship between the numbers of the organisms that occupying the trophic level e.g.
In this way it is possible to know the number of organisms that are capable of transferring energy to the next level
The pyramid indicates that the organisms transferring energy to the next energy levels decrease as we rise up
The body size of organisms increases at each level from the base to the apex of the pyramid as their number decreases
At each trophic level much of the energy obtained is lost in respiration and thus fewer organisms can be supported at the succeeding level.
In some cases the number of organisms will not increase at each succeeding level e.g. many caterpillars feeding on one cabbage. It gives an inverted pyramid of numbers e.g.

Pyramid of biomass

The biomass of an organism is its constant dry weight
The producers have the highest biomass per unit area in decreasing order followed by primary consumers , secondary consumers, tertiary and quaternary consumers

Population

It is a group of organisms belonging to the same species in a particular habitat e.g. population of people in Utumishi academy
Characteristic of population

-Density – refers to the number of individuals per unit area e.g. 50 antelopes/km²

-Dispersion – this is the spread or distribution of organisms in a habitat.

-Population growth – refers to the rate of increase in numbers.

Population growth rate may be influenced by food availability, space, diseases, pests and predators

Population estimation methods

In order to find out the number of organisms in an ecosystem all organisms can be counted. But this is difficult and time consuming because:
(i) Some organisms are very too small or too many
Some organisms move from one place to another.
Some organisms may be poisonous or dangerous.
This problem is solved by taking representative samples from within the habitat.
A sample is a small number of individuals taken from a habitat that is representative of the whole population. Samples are used where the area to be studied is too big.
Sampling can be carried out using the following methods:

(1) Sampling methods

Quadrat method

A quadrat is a square frame of known area made of wood or metal. The standard quadrat is a square meter (m²) but small quadrats can be used if only a small area is being studied.
The quadrat can further be sub-divided into smaller squares by lengths of string or wire.
X
Procedure

(i) Select a suitable study area

(ii) Mark the study area and measure its size.

(iii)Stand in the middle of the study area, hold the quadrat aloft and throw it at random within the study area.

(iv)Where the quadrat lands identify and count all the living organisms enclosed within the boundaries of the quadrat and record the number of each species identified.

(v)Make several throws of the quadrats and repeat step (iv) for each quadrat thrown. Record your result in the table below.

(vi) Work out the average for each species from the total throws Specimen A=Total species No. of throws

=20+2+100+0+50+68=40

i.e. average number of specimen A in cm² is 40

(vii) Calculate the total population in the study area.

Example

Supposing that the area of the playing field is 5000m²and the average number of star grass per m² is 30. Calculate the number of star grass in the field.

If 1m² = 30

5000m²= 5000*30

=15,000 star grass

(b) Line transect method

It may be used to find out the distribution of species of plants in an area
A line transect is taken by running a rope across the plot and marking off equidistant points. Outs are made at each point (station). Only those plant along the line are identified counted and recorded
A line transect is particularly useful when studying transition in habitats and population through an area.
X

(c) Belt transect

A belt transect is taken by running two ropes parallel to each other and about 1m apart along the length of a plot. Counts are made between the two ropes at marked points
Capture – recapture method
This method is suitable for highly mobile animals like insects, birds, small mammals and fish.

Procedure

(i) Catch and mark as many organisms under study and record them as first marked (FM)
The animals are given time to disperse and mix with the remaining population for 24hrs. After 24hrs return to the habitat and capture as many organisms as possible.
Record the number of organisms collected as second capture (SC) and the number of those that were marked with paint i.e. marked recapture (MR)

P = FM X SC

Whereas

P – Total population

SC – second capture

FM – first marked

MR – marked recaptured

NB – the marking technique should not harm the animal or alter its behavior

Marking technique includes light coloured paint that is quick drying e.g. cellulose paint or coloured nail varnish.
For water animals the paint should be waterproof
Other methods include use of tags.

Assumptions made

No organisms move in or out of the area between the two counts.
The released animals mix freely with the remaining population.
The mark does not alter the animal’s behavior.
The marked animals will have enough time to mix with the rest.
The population number does not vary during the study period.

Example

To estimate the population size of mosquitoes in ASTU village, KEMRI researchers caught 400 mosquitoes which they marked and released. After 24hrs, 200 mosquitoes were caught out of which 80 had the marks. Estimate the population size of mosquitoes in the village.

P = FM X SC = 400*200=1000 mosqui

MR 80

The initial number of organisms captured is 75. The second captured is 200. The number of organisms recaptured is 50.

P = FM X SC= 75*200 =300

MR 50

(2) Aerial photography count

It involves photographing organisms from the air and counting them
The method is suitable for large animals that congregate in open spaces
(3)Census /direct counting/head count
This involves the direct count of members of a species in a given area
The method is suitable for large organisms in open areas like savannah grassland
Adaptations of plants to various habitats
Adaptation is change in an organism that increases its chances of survival in a specific environment.
These changes may be structural, behavioural or physiological.
Based on adaptations, there are 4 main groups of plants i.e.
Xerophytes
Helophytes
Hydrophytes
Halophytes
Xerophytes
They are plants adapted to withstand a dry habitat or to endure condition of prolonged drought as in arid and semi-arid areas.
Characteristics of dry habitats
Unpredictable and poorly distributed, rainfall – less than 250mm
Very high day temperatures but very low night temperatures resulting in high diurnal temperature range.
They are very windy
Adaptations of xerophytes to their habitats
High ability to absorb water from the soil.
Some plants have deep roots to absorb water from deep in the soil e.g. acacia tree.
Other plants have superficial roots which grow horizontally close to the soil surface to absorb water after a short or light shower of rain.
Many xerophytes have water storage tissues.
Some xerophytes such as Bryophyllum have succulent stems to store water. Other plants are Eurphobia, sisal, opuntia, aloe
Some xerophytes have a very short life cycle to evade drought hence some survive as seeds or underground perenating organs e.g. corms and bulbs.
The plants reduce their rate of transpiration by:
Some leaves have thick waxy cuticle to minimize the rate of cuticular transpiration e.g. sisal and aloe.
Some have hairs covering the surface of leaves hence trapping moisture e.g. Sodom apple
Some leaves are reduced in size such as scale like leaves of whistling pine (casuarina spp)or modified into spines as in cactus. This reduces the surface area over which transpiration occurs.
Shedding of leaves during drought to reduce surface exposed to transpiration.
Some leaves are folded or rolled up to ensure stomata are not exposed to environmental factors.
Most xerophytes show reduced number of stomata which are located on the lower epidermis that lowers the rate of transpiration.
Some have sunken stomata which accumulate moisture in sub- stomatal air spaces leading to low diffusion gradient thus reducing transpiration rate e.g. Nerium oleander.
Some xerophytes experience reversed stomatal rhythm (opening at night and closing them by day) to prevent excessive loss of water by transpiration.

(b) Mesophytes

These are plants growing under normal conditions of water supply or in well watered soils. They are found in savannah, rainforests e.t.c.
The habitats of Mesophytes have the following characteristics
Adequate rainfall i.e. 950mm – 1800mm that is well distributed throughout the year.
Relatively high humidity
Moderate to high temperatures with low diurnal range
Shallow water table.

Adaptations of Mesophytes to their habitat

Depending on where they grow in these habitats, they show various adaptations e.g.
In forest ecosystem
Trees grow tall due to competition for light
Climbers such as lianas have vines which twine on trees to reach the source of light while epiphytes support themselves on the branches of taller trees.
Others that cannot compete for light are adapted to photosynthesise under low light intensities by having numerous chloroplasts.
Majority show leaf mosaic that minimizes overlapping and over shadowing of leaves so that all leaves are exposed to light for photosynthesis.
Have broad leaves with thin cuticles and many stomata on both leaf surfaces to encourage high rate of transpiration.
Some have waxy and glossy surfaces to reflect the strong light rays and drip off rain water respectively.
Grassland
Long tap root system to reach the water table
Extensive fibrous root system to absorb rain water. Some are shallow rooted and thus develop buttress roots or prop roots for extra support e.g. Ficus natalensis
Needle like leaves to reduce the rate of transpiration
Fewer stomata on the upper leaf surface to reduce the rate of transpiration.
Shedding of leaves during the dry season.

(c) Hydrophytes

These are plants which grow wholly or partly in fresh water.
Their habitats are characterized by:
Low concentration of dissolved gases such as oxygen
Waves and currents are common
Less light under the water

There are 3 types of hydrophytes i.e.

Floating types
They include pista, salviniamolestus (water lettuce), duckweed, hyacinth and
Emergent types
They have roots for anchorage but their stem and leaves are extended to float on the water surface e.g. water Lilly
Sub merged types
They may be suspended in water or anchored at the bottom of the aquatic habitat e.g. ceratophyllum, elodea, spirogyra e.t.c.

Adaptations

Most emergent and floating types have broad leaves with maximum number of stomata on the upper surface. This provides a large surface area for gaseous exchange. The exposed stomata allow for quick loss of water through transpiration
Some sub merged hydrophytes have leaves which are deeply dissected into thread like straws in order to provide a large surface area for absorption of maximum light for photosynthesis.
Their leaves have numerous and sensitive chloroplasts that photosynthesize under low light intensities.
Have large air filled tissues (aerenchyma). The air gives buoyancy to the plants and also assist in gaseous exchange.
They have poorly developed roots that lack root hairs to reduce absorption of water.
Flowers are raised above the water to allow for pollination.
(d) Halophytes
These are plants which are able to tolerate very salty conditions in soil and marine water.
These habitats are characterized by:

-Low concentration of dissolved gases especially in marine water.

-Light intensity is low in marine water

-High concentration of mineral salts

Adaptations

Seaweeds grow close to the water surface where there is sufficient light for photosynthesis.
Submerged plants are able to carry out photosynthesis at low light intensity
Root cells concentrate a lot of salt to enable the roots absorb water by osmosis.
Mangroves have well developed prop and stilt roots for support.
Mangroves growing in mud flats have buttress roots for support.
Some like mangroves have pneumatophores (breathing roots) which emerge above water to obtain atmospheric oxygen for respiration.
The reproductive adaptations include floating fruits. The fruits have got large aerenchymatous tissue for air storage that makes them buoyant.

POLLUTION

Pollution is the addition of substances to the environment in quantities that are harmful to the organisms and distribute to an ecosystem.
Pollutants are substances that cause pollution. There are 3 main categories of pollution i.e air, water and soil pollution.

1.AIR POLLUTION

It refers to the contamination of air. The causes of air pollution include:

Sulphur based chemicals e.g. sulphur IV oxide (SO₂) and Hydrogen sulphide (H₂S).

They are produced by food preserving industries, manufacture of sulphuric acid and burning of sulphur based petroleum fuels.
Hydrogen sulphide is produced from mineral extraction , mine and also from geothermal power stations like olkaria
Volcanic activities also release hydrogen sulphide, carbon IV oxide and carbon II oxide (CO) into the atmosphere.
Effects
High concentrations of sulphur IV oxide leads to bronchitis, pneumon9ia and heart failure.
It also causes irritation and interfere with gaseous exchange
Sulphur IV oxide also dissolves in rain water and falls as acid rain which lowers the soil PH thus lowering the crop production.
Also acid rain corrodes metals such as iron and aluminium in buildings.
Acid rain also causes leaching of magnesium and calcium ions from the soils.
Hydrogen Sulphide poisons the organisms. It contaminates blood and suffocates victims when inhaled.

Oxides of nitrogen e.g. Nitrogen II Oxide (NO) and Nitrogen IV Oxide (NO₂)

These are produced from burning of petroleum fuels in industries and emissions of exhaust fumes in motor vehicles.
Effects
Nitrogen oxides dissolve in rain water forming acid rain.
They are also poisonous to animals affecting respiratory systems when inhaled
Nitrogen IV Oxide is carcinogenic
When trapped near the ground these gases seriously diminish visibility on roads.
Smoke and fumes
These contain carbon II Oxide (co), carbon IV Oxide (CO₂) and carbon particles. These are produced from industries which burn coal and petroleum fuels and from the burning of natural gases and charcoal.
Effects
Smoke and fumes affect the visibility due to “smog” on roads
When they settle on leaves they block the stomata hence hinder photosynthesis.
Smog also causes intense eye irritation, headaches and breathing difficulties
Carbon IV Oxide causes respiratory poisoning since it readily combines with haemoglobin forming carboxyhaemoglobin leading to O₂
CO₂ prevents layers of warm air from escaping into the upper atmosphere causing green house effect that leads to global warming.
Global warming leads to generally high temperatures that have caused the melting of snow on the peak of mountains such as Kenya and Kilimanjaro.
Dust
Its composed of small particles emitted from cement lime producing industries such as:
Cement works
Quarries
Road constructions
Dusty dry weather roads

NB A “wet method” of cement manufacture which does not result into the release of dust has been adopted by East African Portland cement Bamburi cement limited.

Effects
Dust settles on plants leaves hence limiting photosynthesis
It clogs the respiratory surfaces of organisms resulting in breathing difficulties and respiratory diseases.
Dust reduces visibility and irritates the eyes.

Lead

This is mainly from consumption of leaded petrol by motor vehicles. Lead is normally added to petrol to serve as anti-knock compound in vehicle engines so as to improve the engine combustion.

Effects

When inhaled it is absorbed into the blood stream and accumulates in the liver, kidneys and bones of animals affecting physiological functioning of these organs.

Leads is also thought to interfere with mental development of children.

In plants it leads to the blocking of stomatal pores making it difficult for the plants to carry out gaseous exchange hence no photosynthesis

(vi) Aerosols

An aerosol is a substance that consists of very fine particles of liquid or solid suspended in a gas e.g. pesticides, insecticides, fungicides, perfumes, air fresheners or spray paints.
The main pollutants in these aerosols are copper, lead and chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) compounds
Effects
When copper based aerosols are inhaled they cause irritation of respiratory organs of animals.
Copper also causes poisoning of water plants and fish.
Copper based chemicals are non-biodegradable hence tend to accumulate in the ecosystem.
CFCs are used in refrigerators and as propellants in aerosol cans such as perfume.
The main effect of CFCs is the depletion of the ozone layer leading to increased penetration of U.V radiation which causes skin cancer and affects crops

(vii) Noise

It’s the presence of undesirable sound in the atmosphere. It’s produced by machines in factories, heavy vehicles, aeroplanes, music players, loud speakers and juakali workshops.
Effects
Affects hearing in animals. Human beings become insensitive to low pitched sounds.
It’s an irritant and causes stress in animals.

Control of air pollution

Legislation- government needs to enforce the relevant legislative acts on environmental pollution.
Automobile should be fatted with filters and catalytic converters in their exhaust pipes to reduce emission of oxides of nitrogen, sulphur and carbon.
Industries manufacturing sulphuric acid and nitric acids should have long chimneys fitted with scrubbers e.g. solar and wind energy
Use CFC free aerosols and appliances
Use of biological control methods to control pests, diseases and weeds. This reduces reliance on biodegradable chemicals.
Encourage use of public means of transport as much as possible other than private cars, this minimizes consumption of fossil fuels and emission of gas pollutants.
Smoking in public should be abolished.
Ear muffs should be used in factories and juakali workshops that generate loud noises.
The masses should be educated on the need for sustainable environmental management.
The government should be signatory to global treaties on environmental conservation

WATER POLLUTION

It is the addition of substances into the water bodies in quantities that are harmful to the living organisms’ dependent on that water.

Sources of water pollution

Domestic effluents-untreated sewage from urban centers gets discharged into rivers used for water supply for domestic purposes.

This sewage contains disease causing micro-organisms such as bacteria, viruses and protozoa. It’s also full of faecal material and urine which encourage bacterial growth. Kitchen wastes also contain detergents that have a lot of phosphates.

Effects

Water pollution may cause epidemics of water –borne diseases e.g. cholera, typhoid and amoebic dysentery.
The faecal material is broken down by saprophytic bacteria and fungi which lead to depletion of dissolved oxygen in water. This in turn affects aquatic organisms such as fish and aquatic plants.
Decomposition of wastes also releases nutrients into the water which causes rapid growthof water hyacinth e.g. L.victoria. This enrichment of the lake with nutrients and its effects is called eutrophication.

Industrial effluents

Industries discharge various effluents into rivers,dams e.t.c.. The effluents contain toxic metallic compounds of mercury,arsenic and cadmium in addition to acids and other chemicals.

Effects

The poisonous compounds directly kill aquatic organisms such as fish.
This compound enter the food chain and accumulate tolethal levels in organisms higher up the trophic levels
Heat
Industries discharge hot water directly into the water bodies. Some of the effluents may react among themselves releasing heat into the water

Effects

Heat reduces the amount of dissolved gases in water e.g. oxygen and carbon dioxide thus organisms may die from oxygen deficiency.
The hot water may even kill the living organisms directly due to the high temperatures.

Oil Spillage

Oil spillage occur in oceans from oil tankers accidents,
Marine organisms such as fish are killed by clogging on their respiratory surfaces.
Marine birds get their feathers clogged hence have difficulty in flight.
Oil coats photosynthetic phytoplankton’s till they die.
There is reduced light penetration into the water hence photosynthesis of submerged plants is hindered

Agrochemicals

They includeinorganic fertilizers, herbicides, and pesticides.
The inorganic fertilizers contains phosphates and nitrates
Pesticides may contain heavy metals e.g. mercury and copper.other pesticides such as DDT contains CFC which are not easily broken down biologically(non-biodegradable)

Effects

Most of these chemicals contain heavy metals such as copper and mercury which affect respiratory activities of aquatic organisms.

These chemicals accumulate in the body over a long time and reach toxic levels leading to death
Nitrates and phosphates in fertilizers cause eutrophication

Lead

This is water pollutant mainly from pipes and tanks in domestic water supply system. through run-off it finds its way into water bodies like rivers, lakes and oceans

Mercury

It’s a pollutant released by industries that manufacture chlorine, sodium hydroxide oves and vinyl plastics.
Also released during combustion of coal and petroleum oils
Fungicides and some cosmetics also contain mercury

Effects

Methyl mercury is volatile and very toxicit is absorbed by aquatic organisms or though leaves hence entering the food web involving human beings animals eating plants will mercury are poisoned and killed
Mercury poisoningin people results in accumulation of mercury in liver, kidney and brain affecting the physiological functioning and eventually causes death.
Mercury also interferes with the process of melaline formation leading to skin lighting , blindness paralysis and even death
SOIL EROSION
Silt is transported into water bodies

Effects

It makes water unclean and unfit for human consumption
The silt reduces light penetration hence hindering photosynthetic activities.
It clog the respiratory surfaces of aquatic organisms e.g. gills in fish stomata in plants. This interferes with gaseous exchange.

Control of water pollution

Legislation- relevant legislation should be enforced and provide for heavy penalties.
Industries should control or treat the industries effluents before discharging into water bodies.
Proper treatment and disposal of sewages there should be separate systems for disposal of sewage and drinking water.
Latrines should be constructed and properly used in addition to proper personal hygiene to control diseases causing agent.
Encourage use of unleaded fuels
The public should be educated on correct use of inorganic fertilizers and pesticide to be used and should offshore oil wells and refineries.

Effects

Oil layer on the water surface reduces oxygen supply to the water and this may lead to death of aquatic life forms.
be encourage using organic farming which biologically control pest.
Appropriate soil control methods to be put in place such as building of gabions.

3.SOIL POLLUTION

This is where chemicals are discharged into the soil and accumulate to levels that cause harm to soil organisms
Sources of soil erosion

Oxides of sulphur –e.g. surphur IV oxide enter the soil through precipitation as acid rainfall acid rain alters the soil ph therefore affecting plants and animals that cannot tolerate acid soil

Aerosols

Most aerosols sprayed to control pest and disease in plants and animals contain heavy metals e.g. copper and mercury
The chemicals fall on the soil and are taken up by plants where their concentration increases and lead to the death of animals.
Petroleum products
They are spilled on land e.g. oil tankers. Some organisms fail to obtain oxygen in soil saturated soil and therefore die

Inorganic fertilizers

Contain phosphate and nitrates which increase soil acidity so that the soil micro organism cannot inhabit such soils

Solid waste

Community household waste and industrial wastes.
Some are biodegradable e.g. food residue, oil clothing and papers. Others are non- biodegrable e.g. rubber plastic containers scrap metals and glass bottles
Solid wastes are a nuisance and may also be injurious e.g. glass bottles.
They destroy the aesthetic state of the environment
They offer breeding grounds for pests rodents and insects vectors which pose a health hazard to human beings
The non-biodegradable solid wastes limit soil aeration thus inhabiting micro-organisms activities

Control of soil pollution

Recycle solid waste e.g. polythene paper and plastic containers, glass bottles paper and scrap metal.
Household wastes that are biodegradable can be disposed in a compost pit to form compost manurefor organic farming.
Combustible soil waste e.g. oil cloths sanitary towels hair should be burned in incinerators
encourage pipeline transportation of petrol and petrol products to minimize risk of spillage
discourage the excessive use of agrochemicals
biological control of pests and diseases to be encouraged
enforce appropriate legislation on proper solid wastemanagement 4.RADIOACTIVE EMISSION
Nuclear energy is based on the destruction of atom of matter to release energy. The form in which this energy is released when atoms are broken down is generally called radiation. such radiations have great power and it is very destructive if it leaks accidentally
The industries in which this energy is produced are called radioactive or nuclear reactors. Some of the common substances broken down to release nuclear energy are uranium, radium, germanium, plutonium, Hydrosonium (heavy water

HUMAN DISEASES

A disease is a disorder state of a tissues, organ system or organism during which its function is not carried out normally.

Bacterial diseases

They are caused by bacterias e.g.

Cholera

Cause Vibrio cholerae

Mode of transmission

It’s a waterborne disease. Epidemic of cholera are common during floods.
It’s transmitted through contaminated human feaces and food.
Its spread by houseflies which feed on both contaminated faeces and human food.
Incubation period is spread few hours to 6 days.

Symptoms

The bacteria reach the intestine and multiply rapidly.
They secrete an enzyme called mucinase which digests the inner lining of the intestines. The exposed intestinal wall becomes irritated and damaged by the produced by the bacteria and this causes violent diarrhoea and vomiting accompanied by severe abdominal pains.
Leads to general body dehydration occurring to the high frequency of defecation accompanied by loss of large quantities of water.
Death can occur within 24 hours of infection in extreme cases.
Adaptive characteristics
Adaptive characteristics are the structural and functional mechanisms which make a parasite be better suited to its environment.
They form cysts that remain dormant for sometime.
They can survive outside the body of the host.
Can survive in areas of low oxygen concentration like that in the small intestines.

Prevention and control

Treating patients using antibodies.
Isolating the patient especially during an outbreak.
Disposing faeces properly in toilets and latrines discouraging the practice of “flying toilets”(deface in plastic bags which are then thrown into water dumps or rooftops).
The toilets and latrines should be cleaned daily with disinfectants. The latrines should be located far from water sources such as wells and boreholes.
Boiling drinking water.
Cooking food properly before it is eaten
Washing fruits and vegetables properly before eating.
Killing houseflies using insecticides.

Covering food properly before storing it.

Vaccinating people against the disease in areas prone to cholera. The vaccine is effective for 6 months only.
Proper treatment and disposal of sewage.
Typhoid
Cause: Salmonella typhi
Mode of transmission
It’s a food and water-borne disease.
It can also be transmitted through sweat and saliva droplets.
Its spread by houseflies and cockroaches and salmonella bacteria is found in the intestines, lymph nodes.
Symptoms
Fever
Flu
Headache
Abdominal pains
Vomiting
Throat infections
Dry cough
Diarrhea
Dehydration

Adaptive characteristics

They survive in contaminated water for a long time.
The have many alternative host such as pigs, cattle and poultry hence the chance of infecting human being is high.

Prevention and Control

To treat patient with antibiotics
Proper disposal of feaces and urine in toilets and latrines.
Boil drinking water.
Cook food properly before serving it.
Wash vegetables and fruits in treated water before eating them.
Kill houseflies and cockroaches using insecticides.
Food should be properly covered before storage.
Proper treatment and disposal of sewage.
People can be vaccinated against typhoid[effective for 3 yrs]

Protozoan diseases
Malaria

It’s caused by a plasmodium. The four types of plasmodium are :Plasmodiummalariae
Plasmodium vivax
Plasmodiumovale
Plasmodium falciparum
Mode of transmission
Plasmodium parasites live in a female anopheles mosquito and in human beings. The male anopheles mosquito feeds on the sap of plants.
Female anopheles mosquito transmits malaria by biting an infected person then biting a healthy person. The parasites are transmitted from the infected to the healthy person through the bite.
Plasmodium attack RBC and the liver of humans. Incubation period 8-10 days.

Symptoms

Fever and shivering
Headaches
Pain in the joints and sometimes allover the body.
Enlarged spleen and liver.
Anaemia
Loss of appetite
Profuse sweating punctuated by chilis and shivers.

NB sometimes plasmodia parasites cause a more severe and fatal form of malaria by entering the brain cells. This causes cerebral malaria which causes mental disorders.

Adaptive characteristics

The parasites are not digested in the stomach of the mosquito.
Plasmodium is able to enter the RBC and reproduce within haemoglobin.
Some parasites mutate and become resistant to some of the drugs used for treating malaria.

Prevention and control

Take preventive anti-malaria drugs especially when travelling to malaria-prone areas.
Treat patients using anti-malaria drugs.
Sleep under mosquito net which has been treated using anti-malaria medicine.
Apply mosquito repellant cream to the body.
Control the vector by:

-Spraying insecticides to kill mosquitoes.

-Draining mosquito breeding places such as pools, broken pots and tins.

-Introducing fish into the ponds to feed on mosquito larvae.

-Spraying oil onto the surface of stagnant water inorder to kill mosquito larvae.

-Clearing bushes around homesteads.

Amoebic dysentery

Cause: Entamoebahitolytica
Mode of transmission
Transmitted through contaminated water and food hence termed as water-borne disease.
The protozoa are spread by houseflies. The protozoa live in the human intestines causing damage to them. They cause traces of blood to appear in the faeces.
Incubation period is 21-28 days.

Symptoms

Diarrhoea
Faeces have traces of blood.
Abdominal pains
vomiting
fever

Adaptive characteristics

the parasites is able to feed on the digested food of the host;
it resist digestion by the enzymes of the host.
They form a cyst

Prevention and control

Treat patient using anti-protozoa drugs.
Destroy vectors using insecticides.
Proper treatment and disposal of sewage.
Boil drinking water.
Cook food properly
Proper food storage
Clean vegetables and fruits in treated water before eating them
Parasitic worms

Schistosomiasis (bilharzia)

It’s caused by a blood fluke referred to as schistosome. there are various species of schistosome i.e.

–Schistosoma mansonii

-Schistosoma japonicum

-Schistosoma haematobium

Mode of transmission

Schistosoma eggs are passed from an infected person to a healthy person through urine or faeces which are discharged into the water.
The eggs hatch into larvae which enter an intermediate host.e.g snail
The larvae live the snail and live into the water where they penetrate the human being through the skin.

Effects of the parasite on the host

Presence of blood in urine.
General body weakness.
Pain in the lower abdomen.
Itchy skin.
Damage of liver and kidney

Adaptive characteristics

Ability to tolerate low oxygen concentration in the tissues of the urinary bladder.
The parasite has suckers for attachment so that they are not dislodged
The parasite has 2 host i.e. primary host(human being) and secondary host(snail) thereby increasing their chances of transfer to several host
The cercariae larvae and eggs of the parasite has glands that secret lytic enzymes which soften tissues to allow more penetration into the host
Some larval forms e.g. cercariae are encysted and can remain dormant and viable until they come into contact with the human being
The adult worm in blood produces chemical substances which protect it against the host defense mechanism
They worm are of separate sexes. The male forms a gynecophoric canal in which it carries the female. This ensures that eggs produced by the female are fertilized before they are shed into the blood vessels
Prevention and control
People should ware protective shoes and clothes and avoid walking barefooted in swampy areas.
Treatment using anti-schistosomiasis drugs
Use molluscicides to eradicate snails
Do not bath or stand in stagnant water
Boil water used for domestic purposes
Proper treatment and disposal of sewage

Ascaris lumbricoides

It’s a parasitic roundworm which belongs to the phylum nematode (roundworms)
Its characterized by a brownish yellow colour with mouth parts having three lips

Mode of transmission

Its transmitted through contaminated food and water

Effects of parasite on host

General nourishment and tendencies to have a large appetite because the digested food is consumed by the parasite in the intestine
The worms block the intestines thus interfering with digestion, also due to intestinal blockage victims develop large round stomachs.
The worms my move towards the nasal passages and interfere with breathing
Pneumonia my develop due to weakened lungs
Abdominal discomforts
The parasite produces toxic substance in a hosts body

Adaptive characteristic

It has a hard outer pellical that resist the digestive enzymes of the host
The worms tolerate low oxygen concentration in the ileum
They lay many eggs to ensure survival of the species
Eggs are covered by cyst which resist the enzymes of the host
The worm uses its lips to suck digested food from the host
The worm produces anti-enzyme to counter the enzymes the host
It has 2 hosts; human beings and pigs. This ensures that it always has a ready hosts for survival
It has a muscular pharynx through which it sucks digested food from the hosts intestine into its own gut

Prevention and control

Drugs can be used to kill worms
Boil drinking water
Proper use of toilets and latrines
Proper treatment and disposal of human waste
Cook food thoroughly before eating it
Practice personal hygiene

Teachers' Resources

Form 2 CRE Exams and Marking Schemes Free

October 5, 2025 Maverick John Leave a comment

NAME: …………………………………………………..ADM. NO. ……………

SIGNATURE …………………………………………….DATE ……………………

CRE 313

CHRISTIAN RELIGIOUS EDUCATION

TERM 3

TIME: 2 ½ HOURS

FORM 2

JOINT EXAMINATIONS

INSTRUCTIONS TO STUDENTS

Write name and admission number in the spaces provided at the top of this page.
All answers must be written on the question paper in the spaces provided in each question.
The questions should be answered in English
This paper consists of 6 printed pages

Answer all questions in the spaces provided

(a) Identify eight historical books in the Old Testament. (8mks)

(b) Give seven reasons why the Bible is referred to as a library. (7mks)

(a) From the Genesis stories of creation, outline seven teachings about human beings. (7mks)

(b) With reference to the story of the fall of human beings in Genesis 3, state eight effects of sin. (8mks)

(a) Explain the importance of marriage in the Traditional African Communities. (7mks)

(b) Discuss four factors that contributed to harmony and mutual responsibility in the African community. (8mks)

(a) State Isaiah’s prophecies concerning the Messiah. (8mks)

(b) Outline the events that took place on the night Jesus was born. (6mks)

(a) State five reasons why Jesus used parables in His teaching. (5mks)

(b) Describe the parable of the Good Samaritan. [Luke 10:29-37] (8mks)

_____________________________________________________________________

TERM 3, CRE MARKING SCHEME

(a) Identify eight historical books in the Old Testament. (8mks)

Joshua
Judges
Ruth
1^st Samwel
2^nd Samwel
1^st Kings
2^nd Kings
1^st Chronicles
2^nd Chronicles
Ezra
Nehemiah
Esther

[1 x 8 = 8 marks]

(b) Give seven reasons why the Bible is referred to as a library. (7mks)

It contains many books
The books were written by different authors
It had different categories of books / divisions
The books are written in different styles / forms.
The books of the Bible were written at different times / situations / background.
The books of the Bible address different issues / topics / purpose.
The books were written for different audience.
The books are systematically / arranged / order / chronological.

[1 x 7 = 7 marks]

(c) State five different occasions when Christians use the Bible. (5mks)

When preaching the word of God (crusades / church sermons)
When in court
When instructing new converts / conducting Bible study.
During different Christian religious ceremonies / festivals
When teaching CRE
When composing songs / praying / guidance and counselling.
During a swearing in ceremony.

[1 x 5 =5 marks]

(a) From the Genesis stories of creation, outline seven teachings about human beings. (7mks)

Human beings were created in the image /likeness of God.
They have the breath of life from God.
They have been given authority/ dominion over God’s creation
They communicate/fellowship with God.
They are special/great of God’s creation/superior
They have the ability to think/reason/make choices/make decisions in their lives.
They are blessed by God.
Human beings are to use other creations for their benefits.
They are to take care of the creation /till the land/work.
They are to procreate/multiply through marriage.
Man and woman are to compliment, provide companionship for each other.

[1 x 7 = 7 marks]

(b) With reference to the story of the fall of human beings in Genesis 3, state eight effects of sin. (8mks)

Death was introduced yet they, were to live forever
Man was to rule over the woman / inequality between man and woman set in.
The woman was to experience pain during childbirth.
They developed enemity between human beings and the snake
They were to sweat, toil in order to get food
They were expelled from the garden of Eden / separated from God.
They developed mistrust between woman and man
They became embarrassed because of their nakedness.

[1 x 8 = 8 marks]

By visiting them/inviting them to their homes.
Being patient/forgiving them
Evangelisingtothem/preaching/teaching
Guiding and counselling them, referring them to experts according to their needs.
Praying for them
Encouraging them to repent/confessing
Offering material aids/needs

[1 x 5 =5 marks]

(a) Explain the importance of marriage in the Traditional African Communities. (7mks)

Through marriage new social relationships are centered between families and relatives.
It brings the whole community together and everybody has a role to play
The new couple is provided with the opportunity to learn new knowledge and skills
T improves the status of individuals in the society
Marriage is a source of wealth for the man and the family as a whole
Children make the marriage complete and strengthen the bond of unity between husband and wife.
Children provide security for the home
Through marriage, the living, the dead and the unborn are linked to each other.

[1 x 7 = 7 marks]

(b) Discuss four factors that contributed to harmony and mutual responsibility in the African community. (8mks)

Political ties
Division of labour
Communal worship
Leisure activities
Rites of passage
Sharing
Social norms

(2 marks for each explained point). [2 x 4 = 8 marks]

(c) State five factors that undermine the role of medicine men in Kenya today. (5mks)

Introduction of western medicine/hospitals/new inventions/science and technology.
Emergence of new religions which do not support medicine men
Destruction of forests/herbs/deforestation
Lack of proper education by herbalists/ professionalism/lack of proper dosage
Herbal medicine is cumbersome to look for
Low hygiene standards associated with herbal medicine
Certain chronic diseases cannot be treated by some herbs
Emergence of women/quacks who give wrong medicine
Lack of awareness/ education on herbal medicine by the public
Urbanization/ migration from rural to urban centers
Strict government policies
Formal education

[1 x 5 =5 marks]

(a) State Isaiah’s prophecies concerning the Messiah. (8mks)

The Messiah would be born by a virgin/young woman
He would be called Emmanuel
He would be a wonderful counsellor/mighty God/Everlasting father/Prince of peace.
The Messiah would have an everlasting kingdom
He would be a ruler from the house of David.
He would rule with justice/righteousness/peace
He would be humble/simple/ordinary/without beauty
The Messiah would be rejected /despised/sentenced to die
He would suffer for the forgiveness of sins of many people
He would succeed in His work/ be highly honoured
He would be filled with God’s spirit/anointed
He would preach good news/set the captives free

[1 x 8 = 8 marks]

(b) Outline the events that took place on the night Jesus was born. (6mks)

When Jesus was born, his mother wrapped him in swaddling clothes
She placed him in a manger
An Angel appeared to the shepherds in the region to tell them of the birth of the savior
A great company of heavenly hosts/angels appeared singing praise to God
The shepherds decided to go to Bethlehem / hurried off to Bethlehem
The shepherds saw the baby
They spread the news about the baby to other people
The shepherds returned praising/glorifying God
The angel gave a sign on how to identify the baby.

[1 x 6 = 6marks]

(c) Give six reasons why Christians present gifts to newborn babies. (6mks)

Christians give gifts in order to welcome the baby into the family/world
It is a sign of their love /contribution to the baby’s welfare
It is a way of appreciating the gift of life/blessings
It is a way of thanking God/appreciating his goodness
It is a form of congratulating the mother/parents
It is a way of emulating Biblicalpractices

[1 x 6 = 6marks]

(a) State five reasons why Jesus used parables in His teaching. (5mks)

Jesus used parables in order to attract listeners/audience
He wanted to provoke his listeners to think for themselves/ make individual judgment
In order to invoke serious/keen listeners from those who were not
He wanted to keep His identity a secret
The use of parable was to avoid direct confrontation with the Jewish religious leaders.
To demonstrate His wisdom
It was a common method of teaching

[Plus any other relevant point, 1 x5 = 5marks]

(b) Describe the parable of the Good Samaritan. [Luke 10:29-37] (8mks)

A lawyer asked Jesus who neighbor is. Jesus responded by telling him the parable of the Good Samaritan.

He said a man was on his way to Jericho from Jerusalem when he fell among robbers. They stopped him/beat him / departed leaving him half dead.

A priest was going down the road saw him but passed on the opposite side. A Levite came, saw him but passed on the other side.

But a Samaritan, as he journeyed came to where he was. He had compassion/ bound up his wounds, after pouring oil wine on him. He set him on his beast, took him to an inn to rest.

He paid the inn keeper/ promised to come back and pay whatever would be used in caring for the injured man.

Jesus then asked who among the three proved to be a neighbor to the man who fell among robbers.

The lawyer replied that it was the one who had shown mercy.

Jesus told him to go and do likewise.

[1 x 8 = 8 marks]

(c) Give seven reasons why some Christians find it difficult to help the needy. (7mks)

Some Christians lack what to share with the needy/inadequate resources.
There are too many needy cases in the society, hence they help a few.
Sometimes it is difficult to identify the needy cases since some tend to pretend.
Due to tribal/ethnic barriers
Denominational differences
Poor infrastructure / communication in some areas make it difficult to reach the needy.
Selfishness/individualism which makes some Christians ignore the plight /suffering of the needy.
Political affiliations can influence Christians against helping those who do not belong to their groups.
Lack of time/too busy [1 x 7 = 7 marks]

Teachers' Resources

KCPE 2023 English Commonly Tested Questions

October 5, 2025 Maverick John Leave a comment

COMMONLY KCPE TESTED QUESTIONS

ENGLISH

200 PREDICTION QUESTIONS

Time: 2 Hours 30 Mins

Fill in the blank spaces numbered 1 to 15.

______1______ years of public awareness campaigns, speed _______2______ the biggest killer on our roads. When you are ______3______, it is not easy to stop your vehicle or

______4______ it in case of an emergency. ______5______, it is not easy to respond swiftly to

______6______ conditions or situations. The mobile phone is another contributor

______7______ road accident. Not only is using your mobile phone while driving illegal

______8______ it is also dangerous. The use of a mobile phone while behind the wheels ______9______ distraction among the motorists.______10______, some motorists still enjoy chatting different social media platforms while driving. If only they ______12______ what dangers they are exposing themselves ______13______.

Drunk driving often ______14______ in accidents. A motorist who drives under the influence of alcohol ______15______ to make good judgment on the road.

Questions 16 to 30

Read the passage below. It contains blank spaces numbered 16 to 30. For each blank spaces

For me the actual writing of a composition seems fairly easy. I sit down 16 my desk and write. It is the 17 up of the story that is 18 difficult. Most of my compositions are done early in the morning 19 . I find myself fresh. the process of writing 20 compositions is clear. After I have drafted the composition says exactly what I 21 to put across. I used to 22 this important step, but I have slowly come to realize that it may be 23 most important part of writing. Besides, correcting 24 . I cross out unnecessary words, and I 25 find myself adding o0ther words. Depending on the 26 of my composition, I may do this three or four times. I guess that I only spend about 30 percent of any 27 time actually writing the composition. another 40 percent or 28 is used in thinking and coming up with a story, with the 29 used in doing revision. I don’t think I will ever be able to just sit down and start writing without 30 planning.

(Adapted from English and Communication (6th ed.) by Stewart Zimmer Clark, Me graw Hill:

USA, 1961)

Read the passage below. It contains blank spaces numbered 31 to 45. For each blank space.

People usually feel like taking some time 31 to sit alone and 32 some personal decisions. This requires a quiet place without any noise. 33 the background. Such places 34 have become very 35 due to urbanization and industrialization. Even if 36 was to get into a 37 forest, far away from the road, he 38 only succeed in keeping off noise from machine-related sources as there are animals and birds which 39 in the forest and communicate to one another by the noises they make. A monkey, for example, will 40 to pass information to other monkeys. 41 at night, complete silence is impossible to achieve as there are some birds, insects 42 wild animals which hunt at night. They make noise to tell the others 43 where they are or where danger they should avoid has been 44 . It is therefore only 45 to achieve some reasonable amount of silence but almost impossible to achieve complete silence.

Fill the gaps in the passage below

Have you ever seen a vehicle 46 gases 47 .Vehicle 48 fuels such as petrol 49 diesel to power their engines. The combustion of 50 fuels in the engines of vehicles 51 harmful gases such as carbon dioxide 52 carbon monoxide and other gases. The exhaust gases produced by vehicles 53 poisonous which 54 the air.

Read the passage below. It contains blank spaces numbered 55 to 60. For each blank space.

The 55 of global warming 56 already causing havoc 57 the world. Floods are causing untold suffering to communities; famine and food 58 associated 59 the effects of climate change is hounding the region. Kenya and 60 government must adapt to changes happening.

For questions 61 to 63, choose the alternative that best completes the sentence.

The new mobile l bought last week _____________________
Neither my younger brother nor I ________________ planning to travel during the holidays.
It was not until he looked outside the house _______________ he realized darkness had crept in.

Choose the alternative that means the same as the underlined words in questions 64-66.

The meeting was put off
1. postponed
2. cancelled
3. stopped
4. delayed
The boy regained consciousness after a few hours.
1. came off
2. came about
3. came on
4. came to
It is cruel to look down on other people
1. hate
2. despise
3. mistreat
4. ignore

In questions 67 and 68, choose the correct question tag.

The boy claimed that he had left his book at home, ___________________?
George hardly ever arrives at school late, _____________________ ?

For questions 69 and 70, select the word that least fits in the group.

69.

stationary
jewellery
crockery D.equipment

70.

boar
buck
bitch
stallion

For questions 71 and 72, choose the option which means the same as the underlined word.

The robber surrenderedafter a long chase by the police.
The girl disclosed her elder brother’s plan to marry her off.

For questions 73 and 75 , choose the alternative that best fills the blank space

Neither of my parents ________ at home now.
She has been ______ in the field for the last twenty minutes.
We are three girls in our family and Jane is the _______ .

For each of questions 76 to 78, choose the best sentence that means the same as theunderlined one.

If it had not rained, we would have done enough practice We did enough practice because it had rained.
1. It did not rain, so we did enough practice
2. The rain did not stop us from doing enough practice.
3. We did not do enough practice because it had rained.
It hardly rains in the Sahara desert.
1. It never rains in the Sahara desert.
2. It often rains in the Sahara desert.
3. It rarely rains in the Sahara desert.
4. It heavily rains in the Sahara desert.
“Mutai won the 1000 metres race in Tanzania,” Kogo said.
1. Kogo said that Mutai will win they 1000 metres race.
2. Kogo said that Mutai had won the 1000 metres race in Tanzania.
3. Kogo said that Mutai wins the 1000 metres race in Tanzania.
4. Kogo said that Mutai would win the 1000 metres race.

For questions 79 and 80, choose the sentence which is correctly punctuated.

79.

Did you watch news yesterday? asked Tony.
“Did you watch news yesterday?” Asked Tony.
“Did you watch news yesterday?” asked Tony.
Did you watch news yesterday? Asked Tony.

80.

i.As soon as it rains we will plant maize. ii. As soon as, it rains we will plant maize. iii. As soon, as it rains we will plant maize.

As soon as it rains, we will plant maize.

For questions 81 to 83 choose the alternative That means the SAME AS the underlinedword

The hardworking teacher was promoted
You will finally get your destination if the vehicle does not break down.
You have to be smart in your work to achieve your aim

For each of the questions 84 to 86, choose from the alternative given the statement whichwhen combined with the phrase makes a complete and sensible sentence

Susana will only be treated
1. because she reaches the hospital on time.
2. as she reaches the hospital on time.
3. after she reaches the hospital on time.
4. if she reaches the hospital on time.
If I had time, I
1. should visit my grandmother
2. could visit my grandmother.
3. would visit my grandmother,
4. might visit my grandmother.
It was until the rains started
1. that the farmers started planting their crops.
2. when the farmers started planting their crops.
3. as the farmers started planting their crops.
4. before the farmers started planting their crops.

For questions 87 and 88, choose the BEST arrangement of the given sentences to makesensible paragraphs

Use of written or oral language should be effective ii. it is importance to communicate in order to be understood iii. The response too will help you know whether you communicated or not iv. If the language is too high or too low, you may not achieve your aim

However, the water has to be clean to keep you healthy.

ii.Water is essential for life.

iii.This could change depending on the type of food eaten and the day’s weather iv.You need to drink an average of eight glasses of water per day:

In questions 89 and 90, choose the correct alternative that means the SAME AS the givensentence.

Hardly had the cock crowed than we woke up. A.We woke up when the cock crowed.
The cock crowed and immediately we woke up. C. The cock crowed as soon as we woke up

D.mWe woke up then the cock crowed.

“What have you been doing since morning?” her mother asked.
1. Her mother asked if she had been doing anything since morning.
2. Her mother asked her what she was doing since morning.
3. Her mother asked her what she had done since morning
4. Her mother asked her what she had been doing since morning

Answer the following question 91 according to the instructions given.

Write in direct speech

My elder brother said that he didn’t understand why people smoke In questions 92 and 93 choose the best question tag.

Dan pays school fees for his daughters, _____? A. doesn’t he
1. did he
2. does he
3. didn’t he
The guests have not gone home, ________?
1. is it
2. haven’t they
3. isn’t it
4. have they

For question 94 choose the alternative that means the same as the given sentence.

Neither Mary nor his best friend attended the prize giving.
1. Both of them attended the prize giving
2. Mary attended the prize giving
3. None of them attended the prize giving
4. His best friend attended the prize giving

Choose the correct alternative to complete the sentence 95 and 96 below.

Cate bought a _______ skirt.
1. circular, silk, short
2. short, circular, silk
3. silk, short, circular
4. circular, short, silk
Mary, ____ house collapsed was not hurt.
1. who
2. who’s
3. whose
4. which

For questions 97 to 99, select the alternative that best completes the sentences

I don’t think I can tolerate his behavior much longer
1. put up with
2. put out with
3. put down with
4. put off with
He is as tall as ____
1. me
2. I am

am I

Dan chose to play football ___ he is good at it.
1. though
2. and
3. but
4. because

Choose the correct sentence
1. Don’t come late; if you do, you will miss the fun
2. Mary bought apples, oranges and pears. C.Ken gave us chocolates; buns; sweets

D.Dan made, the cake, we decorated.

Read the passage below and answer questions 101 to 113

I had heard a great deal about Miss Beam’s school. It was the talk of the town. Many parents wished they could secure a slot there for their children. However, it was not everyone who applied got the nod. I had a burning desire to visit the school and see for myself what happened there. It was not until last week that the chance to visit it came. I was full of mirth as I readied myself for the visit.

When I arrived, there was no one in sight but a girl of about twelve. Her eyes were covered with a bandage and she was being led carefully between the flower-beds by a little boy who was about four years younger. Suddenly, the girl stopped and it appeared as she had asked the boy who had come. He seemed to be describing me to her. Then they passed on.

Miss Beam was all that I had expected – middle-aged, full of authority, yet kindly and understanding. Her hair was beginning to turn grey and she had the kind of plump figure that is likely to be comforting to a homesick child. She received me with open arms as soon as I had introduced myself. Of course she had been expecting me. I asked her some questions about her teaching methods which I had heard were both unique and exciting.

She briefly explained how the school started and what prompted her to employ practical methods of teaching. “Our principal goal is to equip learners with special skills that will enable them demonstrate kindness to others and to be responsible citizens. Take a minute and look out of the window.” I went to the window which overlooked a large garden and a playground at the back. “What do you see?” Miss Beam asked.

“I see some very beautiful grounds,” I said, “and a lot of jolly children. It pains me, though, to see that they are not all so healthy and active-looking. When I came in, I saw one poor little girl being led about. She has some trouble with her eyes. Now I can see two more with the same difficulty. And there’s a girl with a crutch watching the others at play. She seems to be a hopeless cripple.

Miss Beam laughed. “Oh, no!” she said. “She’s not really lame. This is only her lame day. The others are not blind either. It is only their blind day.” I must have looked very surprised, for she laughed again.

“This is a very important part of our system. To make our children appreciate and understand misfortune, we make them share in misfortune too. Luckily, they are always eager to take part in the activities. Each ter1n every child has one blind day, one lame day, one deaf day, one injured day and one dumb day. During the blind day, their eyes are bandaged absolutely and they are on their honor not to peep. The bandage is put on overnight so they wake blind. This means that they need help with everything. Other children are given the duty of helping them and leading them about. They all learn so much this way -both the blind and the helpers. There is no misery about it. Everyone is very kind and it is really something of a game. Before the day is over, though, even the most thoughtless child realizes what misfortune is. The blind day is, of course, really the worst, but some of the children tell me that the dumb day is the most difficult. We cannot bandage the children’s mouths, so they really have to exercise their will-power. Come into the garden and see for yourself how the children feel about it.”

Miss Beam led me to one of the bandaged girls. I spent some time talking to them as well as the other children who appeared to have different forms of disabilities. I enjoyed interacting with them and even offered to play the role of a helper whenever necessary.

When I finally had to leave, I told Miss Beam that I was very sorry to go. I wished I had spent the entire term there to learn more essential life skills. As I left Miss Beam’s School, I was a changed man. Now I understood why many adults wished to enroll their children there.

101.Which statement is true about Miss Beam’s School according to the first school paragraph?

lt was the best school in the neighbourhood.
lt was popular with people.
It admitted learners from humble background.
lt had very creative teachers.
The parents who sought admission for their children to Miss Beam’s School: A.had to visit the school prior.
1. had limited chances of success
2. were expected to pay a lot of school fees.
3. were not guaranteed a slot.
The phrase I was full of mirth as used in the passage shows that the writer: A.was very happy.
1. had been looking forward to the visit.
2. hoped to have a successful day.
3. was rather anxious.
Why did the ‘blind’ and her guide stop suddenly? A.They had both seen the visitor.
1. They had been interrupted.
2. They wanted to have a conversation.
3. Their attention was probably drawn to the 105. How best can we describe Miss Beam?
4. Impatient but kind
5. Authoritative but warm
6. Understanding but authoritarian
7. Fair and effective
Which statement is true about the meeting between Miss Beam and the writer? A.It was coincidental.
1. The duo had been eagerly awaiting it.
2. It was meant to help the school.
3. It had been preplanned.
The word principal has been used in the passage to mean the same as:
1. important
2. insignificant
3. main
4. serious
The methods of teaching used in Miss Beamare aimed at: A.making the school famous.
1. helping learners to discover their hidden talents
2. promoting key virtues among the learners.
3. helping learners to be social.
When the writer saw the children demonstrating different kinds of disability, he: A.probably sympathised with them.
1. understood why they were in Miss Beam’s school
2. knew they were acting.
3. wished to offer them assistance.
Why did Miss Beam laugh when she heard the writer’s opinion of her school?
1. The writer had a sense of humour
2. The writer was ignorant of what was actually happening in the school.
3. She was trying to be friendly
4. The writer had thought of her as cruel.
When a child had a blind day, he or she was expected to: A.limit the movement around the school.
1. spend more time on their own.
2. undergo a moment of misery in life.
3. learn to be kind and helpful to the visually impaired.
What shows that the learners approved of the practical methods of teaching used in the school?
1. They knew they would always have a helper.
2. They did not experience discomfort of any kind.
3. They were always ready to play the roles
4. The methods were very important for the
Why was the writer a changed man as he left Miss Beam’s School? A.He had a day full of fun.
1. He had learnt very important skills.
2. He now understood why parents took their children to that school.
3. He liked what Miss Beam had told him about the school.

Read the passage below and answer questions 114 to 125.

Thanks to scientific advances over the last several decades, we human beings are able to lead healthier lives than ever before. We know how important it is to exercise regularly. We know which foods are the best for our bodies. And we certainly know one habit that we shouldn’t pick up, because it’s unhealthy and can even be fatal. What are we talking about? Smoking, of course! Have you ever read the Warning labels on a pack of cigarettes? Laws now require cigarette packages to contain warnings about the many bad side effects that can be experienced as a result of smoking.

If you look around you, though, you still see people smoking cigarettes. In many areas, it’ s no longer lawful for people to smoke cigarettes in restaurants and other public places. These laws help protect non-smokers from the dangers of secondhand smoke.

If you stand in line at a convenience of store, you’re also likely to see several people purchase packs cigarettes. Although the number of people who smoke is on the decline, there are still millions of people around the world who smoke cigarettes, despite the obvious health risks. Why do they do that? One of the main reasons people still smoke today is that they started smoking in the first place. People start smoking for many reasons: advertisements, easy availability of other reasons. And cigarettes, peer pressure, among as most smokers already know, once you start smoking, it can be very, very hard to stop

The fact that smoking is dangerous to your health is well-known today. Smoking has been linked to an increased likelihood to develop cancer and heart disease. Some studies show that your smoking can decrease lifespan by a decade or more. Smoking can also be a huge financial burden, costing thousands of shillings per year.

So why do people continue to smoke despite these negative effects? The answer is addiction. One of the primary ingredients of cigarette tobacco is nicotine, which is highly addictive. Like many addictive illegal drugs, nicotine makes a smoker continue to crave cigarettes if they try to smokers who are stop smoking. Even highly-motivated to stop smoking can have a difficult time withdrawal kicking the habit. Nicotine symptoms can make a smoker feel sick and lead to continuing to smoke despite a desire to quit.

The best way to quit smoking is never to start in the first place! Of course, that advice only helps those who have never smoked before or tried cigarettes. For those who have smoked for some time, it is possible to quit, but it can be a tougher battle than many people realize.

There are many products and strategies available today to help smokers kick the habit. For example, nicotine gum and patches can be used to slowly wean smokers off of the addictive substance. Many smokers, however, find that quitting “cold turkey” is the only way to go. That means that they simply stop smoking cigarettes one day and never smoke again. For people who try to quit smoking in this way, it is often helpful to rely on support groups, such as family, friends, or local groups of former smokers.

If you have someone in your life who smokes, you can help them quit by providing the support and encouragement they need. The first few days are always the hardest, and relapses are common. But, with support, many people are able to break the bonds of nicotine addiction to become smoke-free. When they do, they feel better and can begin to reverse some of the damage done by smoking.

According to the first paragraph, it is true to say that:
1. there are uncountable effects of scientific advances.r
2. regular exercise leads to good health.
3. all types of foods are suitable for our bodies.
4. it is everybody’s desire to stop smoking
Why do cigarette packages have warning labels? To reduce the dangers of smoking.
1. To discourage people from buying cigarettes.
2. To educate the potential smokers on the best brands of cigarettes.
3. To sensitize the public on the dangers of smoking. 116. The word fatal has been used in the passage to mean:
dangerous
hazardous
deadly
disastrous
Why is it unlawful to smoke in public?
1. To avoid air pollution
2. To reduce the effect of smoke on the non-smokers.
3. To promote good behaviouramongsmokers
4. To ensure non smokers get more licensed information about smoking.

smokers.

From the passage, it ís true to say that:
1. the number of smokers is negligible.
2. few people buy cigarette in public places C.some laws on smoking are nof effective

D.there are fewer smokers nowadays. 119. People start smoking due to: A.influence from friends.

advertisements of cigarettes.
the fact that cigarettes are easily available.
different reasons.

It is true to say that smokers:
1. know the dangers of smoking
2. cannot stop the habit at all.
3. regret starting the habit.
4. have little information about the dangers of smoking.
Which one is not a problem associated with smking? It leads to:
1. ill health
2. negative economic impacts
3. shorter lifespan
4. arrogance among smokers.
It is not easy for smokers to stop the habit mostly because of:

A.lack of commitment B.the withdrawal symptoms.

the addictive substance in cigarettes
cigarettes are readily available

In order to avoid the effects of smoking, a person should: A.smoke less often.
1. avoid starting the habit.
2. smoke in private.
3. buy cigarettes from the licensed dealers. 124. People who manage to quit smoking:
  1. require some support
  2. often pick up the habit again
  3. find it hard to fit in the society.
  4. do not show withdrawal syptoms.
4. The best title for the above passage is: Dangers of smoking.
  1. How to avoid smoking.
  2. Effects of smoking.
  3. Facts about smoking.

Read the passage below and then answer questions 126 to 138.

I soon learned that life for a growing boy was not all play; at least not for boys with parents like mine. Although my mother had never had the benefit of formal education herself, she was determined that I should be sent to school at the earliest opportunity. My father, due to my mother’s persuasive power, was strongly in favour of this also. Even though I could often get round my father, I knew that once my mother’s mind had been made up, there was nothing I could do about it.

I found my first day at school so disappointing that I ran away, determined never to return. But my mother turned a deaf ear to my protests and firmly dragged me by the arm every morning and deposited me in the school. Eventually, I realised that I had lost the battle. I decided that since I was going to forced to stay in school, I might as well get to like it and do what I could to learn something. To my surprise, I soon found that I enjoyed my lessons and looked forward to going to school. However, we lived in fear of the teacher because of his firm belief in the old adage: ‘Spare the rod and spoil the child’. I disliked being forced to do things against my will because I was not used to it. I used to think what a paradise school would be if we were left in peace to do our studies without the presence of a master.

All the various grades occupied one room, and the teacher used to teach a class at a time. It must have been a hard job for him, and we did not do much to make it easy for him. Luckily, I was keen on learning. In fact, I was so keen that my only dread was that my father might one day be unable to afford the school fees which at that time amounted to ten shillings a term. Because of this, I began rearing chickens which I sold for fifty cents each. By this means, I could not only help to meet my school fees, but I had money to buy books as well.

One thing in particular stands out in my mind during my early school days, probably because it was my first lesson in discipline. We were not fond of the teacher because of his frequent use of the bark stick, often without a good reason. One day we learnt that an inspector was coming to the school and immediately saw our chance to get our revenge on the teacher. We got together and decided to stay away from school the whole day during the inspector’s visit. My one regret was that I was not able to see the expression on the inspector’s face when he found an empty classroom or, better still, the look of horror and amazement on the face of the teacher. It certainly must have caused him a lot of embarrassment but the following morning he got the last laugh. As soon as we showed our faces, he had his stick ready. We were each given twenty-four lashes on our bare bottoms. This hurt so much that for the next three days, I was unable to sit down at my desk. But I knew I deserved it. From that day, I have learnt to accept punishment that I feel I have justly earned.

(Adapted from Ghana by Kwame Nkurumah)

Why did the writer’s father support his going to school? He knew his son would be successful.
1. The writer’s mother convinced him.
2. His love for education was great.
3. He had to agree with the writer’s mother.
The writer says he was often able to ‘get round’ his father. This means that he could
1. influence his father to do what he wanted.
2. walk together with his father.
3. ask his father difficult questions.
4. make his father like him much more.
‘But my mother turned a deaf ear….’ This means that the writer’s mother did not hear everything he said.
1. did nothing to help him.
2. did not listen to him.
3. did not understand him at all.
What battle is the writer referring to in the second paragraph? A.The harassment by the teacher at school.
1. The great disappointment suffered at school.
2. The way his mother dragged him to school.
3. The struggle to avoid going to school.
Why was the writer surprised to find out that he soon enjoyed going to school? A.He had known that schooling was the hardest thing to do.
1. He had not expected he would ever like going to school.
2. He still believed that school was not for boys like him.
3. He had not thought school would become a paradise.
The writer’s teacher believed that A.children need to be disciplined.
1. children are naturally lazy.
2. children should respect visitors.
3. children require a lot of care.
How many classrooms did the writer’s s school have?
1. Many
2. Two
3. One
4. None
The word ‘dread’ as used in the passage or means A. trouble.
The writer started rearing chickens in order to A.help his father feed the family.
1. have something to do after school.
2. practise what he had learnt at school.
3. take care of the cost of his education.
The writer’s mother can be described as
1. harsh
Why did the pupils decide to stay away from school? A.To avoid the teacher’s punishment.
1. To make the teacher feel ashamed.
2. To shock the school inspector.
3. To have a whole day to themselves.
What lesson did the writer learn about discipline in school? A.That one should be in school when inspectors visit.
1. That one should accept punishment if it is justly given.
2. That one should avoid taking revenge when punished.
3. That one should keep away from bad company.
Which of the following would be the most suitable title for this passage?
1. My early school years
2. My day of punishment
3. My day of revenge
4. My love for school

Read the following passage and then answer questions 139 to 150

One day, Hare met Elephant on the way to the forest. As Hare is a cunning and clever animal, he wanted to fool Elephant. He started talking to Elephant,” Elephant my brother, good morning. What is the matter? Why are you walking all alone like that, my friend? Why don’t you ask me to walk along with you through the forest?”

After they had walked “Elephant my brother, I want to go on a rope-pulling contest with you. I know that I can defeat you miserably, for I am stringer than you’, Elephant replied, “You are too small to contest with me. You are playing about, my brother, think twice.”

They then planned to go on a contest the next day in the forest. Elephant went away laughing, thinking that Hare could do nothing to him.

The same day, Hare met Hippo and started talking to him saying, “Hippo my brother, I want you to contest with me one of these fine days. We shall pull a rope across the forest and see who the winner will be.” Hippo said, ‘ Don’t play with me, brother. You are just too tiny to contest with me.” He made the same plan, just as he had done with Elephant.

The next morning, Hippo and Elephant went to the opposite sides of the forest thinking that he was going to contest Hare. They started pulling the rope. Meanwhile, Hare was sitting on a high hill looking at what was happpening below. he sang a song to taunt Elephant and Hippo. As he sang, Hippo and elephant6 pulled harder. They pulled and pulled and got very weary. At dusk, they almost fainted and stopped pulling.

Hare immediately went ot the elephant and asked, “Am I not great?”

Elephant replied, “Oh, Hare, mr brother, I agree that you are really great. I’ve has it tough the whole day.”

Hare then ran to Hippo and told him the same thing he had told Elephant. Hippo wondered at the strength of Hare and said, “Hare my brother, I’ve just realised that you are very strong. In fact, you should be made King of the jungle!” Hare went away merrily playing his flute.

The word “cunning” as used in the first paragraph can best be replaced by A.tricky.
1. brave
Hare asked Elephant questions in order to A.praise Elephant.
1. test Elephant’s courage.
2. attract Elephant’s attention.
3. tease Elephant
The word “defeat” as used in the story has the same meaning as A.win.
Which one of the following can best replace “think twice” as used in the story? A.Think carefully
1. Think aloud.
2. Think big.
3. Think two times.
What brought the contest between Elephant and Hippo to an end? A.Darkness set in.
1. Hare stopped it.
2. They became tired.
3. They lost breath.
Why was Hare singing during the contest? A.To make Elephant and Hippo strong.
1. To entertain Elephant and Hippo.
2. To mock Elephant and Hippo.
3. To cheer on Elephant and Hippo.
“I have had it tough the whole day” means A.Elephant felt angry.
1. Elephant got ashamed.
2. Elephant had struggled.
3. Elephant was strong.
Why did Hare organize the contest between Elephant and Hippo? A.To test if Elephant and Hippo were obedient to him.
1. To make them believe that he was the strongest.
2. To find out who was stronger between Elephant and Hippox
3. To be declared the king of the jungle by Hippo.
Which of the following words best describes Elephant and Hippo? A.Foolish.
Which one of the following statements is true according to the passage? A.We should not trust friends too much.
1. We should not compete with our friends.
2. We should not take part in contests.
3. We should not sing as we work.
What do you think was in the minds of Elephant and Hippo as they started pulling the rope?
1. They would have a tough contest.
2. The competition would be easy.
3. They feared losing the contest.
4. The winner would be Hare.
What lesson do we learn from the story? A.Small animals are cunning.
1. Wisdom is strength.
2. Determination is success.
3. Big animals are weak

Read the passage below and then answer questions 151 to 163.

When Tolo arrived back, he was not in a talking mood. He looked tired, worn out, hungry and moody. His clothes too, looked torn, dirty and it was obvious wherever he had been to was hell on carth. It took a few days then he gathered courage to take a few trusted friends who remained glued next to him, especially in the evenings.

Tolo was at home and like other hunters, he decided to go and inspect his traps. The first two had caught nothing and so he proceeded to the third one which was located near the riverbank. It was a forested area and thus, having a panga in the hand was essential.

He was lucky! A deer had been trapped and it looked either dead or dying from a distance. However, when he moved closer, he realized its eyes were wide open although it made no attempt to Ilee. lle knew it was just waiting to be carried away but how wrong it was! The poor creature had been struggling for hours and hours and upon realizing it couldn’t flee itself, decided to save the little energy left for any opportunity of escape ifit ever came. So when Tolo cut off the rope it had entangled itself in. the deer made a leap into the air and its first landing was four metres away

Tolo was shocked and surprised but he picked his panga and went after the creature. Due to his speed and undergrowth, he lost it. Knowing that it couldn’t cross he adjacent river that fast, he decided to keep going after it; sooner or later, he would get it.

It was not long when he reached it but what he saw almost made him faint. The deer was in the claws of a ferocious-looking leopard, with teeth dripping fresh blood, glared and glow led at him, he found himself climbing the closest tree. It was the safest thing he could do but it was the gravest mistake that landed him in trouble.

The went up the tree with the heart beating fast but hopeful to get the safety he was very much wanted. For some time, it remained so but at around eight o oclock, he heard some noise and looked down. Tulis utter surprise, the Icopard, with the deer’s neck in the jaws, was struggling up the tree! This shocked him and made him climb to even higher branches. It was then that he realized that he was 100, was trapped! The leopard settled on a thick branch, just below him and started eating its meal probably aware of his presence.

It’s this meal that lasted a whole two days and within those two days. lolo learnt that one can actually stay for two days and nights without food, drink and very little sleep lle vowed to abandon trapping animals and ventured into crop cultivation.

Tolo was not in a talking mood because
1. he had just arrived back
2. many people had talked ill about him.
3. what he had undergone was still tormenting him.
4. he did not find the right people to address
From the way Tolo looked, it is possible to suggest that he
1. knew little about good grooming,
2. decided to change his appearance completely
3. he intended to attract the villages attention.
4. he had not had time for good grooming.
What does the writer mean by describing where Tolo had been as hell on earth? A.The conditions there were undesirable.
1. No one else had been there
2. He had been to hell and saw for himself
3. lt took him a long time to return. 154. When Tolo left home that evening.
he was accompanied by other hunters.
it was a routine he always did.
he expected to catch a trapped animal
he was in too much of a hurry
The item Tolo carried as he inspected his traps can BEST be described as
1. Weapon
2. equipment
3. instrument
4. tool
As soon as Tolo saw the trapped deer, he A.became curious to ascertain its state.
1. wondered how to carry it away.
2. suspected it would cause trouble
3. doubted if he was truly lucky
The MAIN reason why the deer leap into the air is A.it was alarmed by Tolo’s arrival. B.it had been resting all along
1. its life depended on it.
2. it had just opened its eyes.
Which of the four words below describe what made Tolo to follow the fleeing deer?
1. concentration
2. determination
3. curiosity
4. anxiety
What made Tolo realise that the deer wouldn’t go far? A.Knowledge of how deer behave.
1. The speed at which it had left.
2. This experience as a hunter
3. The time the deur had taken in the trap
By climbing the nearest tree, Tolo wanted to A.frighten the leopard off its prey.
1. see if the antelope was actually dead.
2. hide from the leopard then take the antelope
3. save himself from danger.
Why does the writer describe climbing the true the gravest mistake? A.it almost made him lose his life.
1. the tree was not strong enough for him and the leopard.
2. leopards normally hunt their prey up the tree
3. he should have climbed a different tree
The leopard settled only two branches away from Tolo because A.it had no business following Tolo.
1. it felt comfortable there.
2. the upper branches were weak
3. it was tired because of the load it had.
The BEST summary for this passage would A.it’s unwise to venture out alone.
1. We have to be selective on where to go.
2. you can lead yourself into serious trouble
3. your company can discourage you from talking.

Read the passage below and then answer questions 164 to 175

Speaking up is important, especially when addressing people who are senior to you. It is the best ever thing to do as it leaves no doubt to your listener that you know what you are saying and are confident. Mental toughness sometimes requires you to say ‘No’ even when given a command. In the Special Forces, it is called ‘Chinese Parliament’. This is where all of us are able to talk very leely with one another, with complete disregard to positions others hold. It’s common to hear one say, ‘I’m going to be part of the mission and I’m not going to lose my life’ If such a person thinks it is dangerous, it’s wise for him to say so at once without mincing his words.

In the forces, it’s difficult to go direct to the commander and tell him that the plan can’t work and it’s loaded with big risks. This, however, should be acceptable especially when one has read intelligence reports on the possible danger. It could make the commander think of a different way, of attacking the enemy. Options are usually many, not one. This only happens when you don’t have mental toughness to question things or give suggestions.

If you fail to talk to your seniors and instead have the Big Boss mentality, with an assumption that the commander knows it all, you may die alongside the same commander or he might live after you’re gone. This only happens when you don’t have mental toughness to question things or give suggestions

In the army, however much you have trained and have expertise in a certain area, it is necessary to be flexible. This means that although rules are laid down to be followed, at times, they could be bent”. It doesn’t make sense to stick to laid down procedures when it looks obvious that it’s leading you into a disaster. Sadly, at times, such actions end up affecting a specific individual who then is blamed for it.

If you are not flexible, you could end up generating lower results. This is because it kills creativity and innovation. Conditions and situations keep changing and this should make every single and individual by shifting the mindset. Creativity is vital for the growth and development because things, people, time and circumstances change.

What does the writer mean by saying speaking up is importance?
1. It shows the speaker a lot of respect
2. Speaking up makes it easy to identify seniors from juniors.
3. It makes one develop confidence when talking.
4. It ensures the communication is effective.
By saying ‘No’ When given a command, it shows that A.your state of mind is acceptable.
1. you don’t easily take in instructions.
2. you think faster than others.
3. no one is clever as you are.
For your listeners to confirm that he had been paying attention,

A.only your seniors should get you B.statements said should be repeated.

you should be loud enough.
there must be many questions asked.

In a Chinese parliament, one is expected to
1. pay attention when being spoken to
2. speaking loudly and clearly C.remember the positions people hold.

D.express himself freely to all others.

How do people in the forces pass information to their seniors?

A.After getting intelligence reports, B.By talking politely to their commanders.

If everybody is aware of the danger.
By asking their seniors for solution problems

The MAIN use of the intelligence is that A.his commander uses it to win the war
1. it could safeguard the soldiers
2. No soldier can go to fight without it
3. Identifying the soldier to be promoted becomes easy.
The Big Boss mentality is discouraged because A.both soldiers and the commander are at risk
1. the commanders do not like it.
2. only the commaders give orders to soldiers.
3. it relies on a lot of assumption
What is the opposite of the word flexible as used in the fourth paragraph?
1. Tough
2. Rigid
3. Brave
4. Strong
By bending rules, the writer means that A.doing the opposite of what the rule says.
1. there are rules to be followed.
2. not following the rules exactly as expected
3. the decision to follow the rules or not to is optional 173. Some people are blamed for causing disasters
  1. as they obviously caused them.
  2. since they have got injured in the accidents
  3. as someone has to take the blame anyway.
  4. they had the capacity to avert it.
  5. Why would people be flexible in decision making? A.Many decisions are erratic.
  6. Situations are not static
  7. No one knows everything
  8. Many decisions are not popular
  9. The BEST title for this passage would be A.Communication within the armed forces
  10. How commanders intimidate their juniors
  11. The operation of the Chinese Parliament
  12. The blame game within the armed forces

Read the following passage carefully and then answer questions 176-187.

I started school late, at the age of eight years because my father was not keen on taking me to school. My mother was very keen on insisting that little education did no harm. By then I was ten years old. I was the last born in a family of four children; two boys and two girls. My brothers had finished their secondary education and were now working in the capital city. My sister got married at the age of eleven. From the time she married, I never saw her happy. Her face always looked sad and weary but not once did I hear her complain.

The journey to and from school took two hours. At 3.30pm the lower classes were released while the rest of the school stayed on until 4.30pm. We sat on tree trunks for we did not have desks. Two of the classrooms’ walls had gaping holes. The roof of the classroom was no more than thatch grass that was laid over rafters. It was badly built. On this particular day, Naitula’s book was missing and I found her searching for it everywhere. Then she found one of our classmates under a tree copying notes from it. Without uttering a single word, she forcefully snatched the book from him and after staring at him with a stern face, she waved at me to join her and we left for home. This caught the boy by surprise and he was left staring at us.

It was a rainy season and various wild flowers had bloomed. There were blue, yellow, red and white flowers. Wild fruits had ripened and birds feasted on them. One of my favorite fruits was the wild berry and these two were in plenty. We always spent some time on the way home picking them and also playing with the butterflies that had invaded the country. The path we took every day was so muddy that we kept wiping our feet on the wet grass. From where we were, we could see herds of cattle grazing on the plains in the distance. My father’s herd was grazing near our home.

Cows and goats are our main source of livelihood and a man’s worth is judged by the number of livestock one has. Women, children and animals are a man’s property. Woman’s work is to take care of the man, his children and his animals. My friend Naitula and I parted at the spot where the road branches to our different Manyattas.

On arriving home, I found my father with visitors and they were drinking a traditional brew from horns. Four were seated on his left side while one was on his right. I entered the hut and found a strange woman seated there so I greeted her. My mother, without looking at me asked, “Are you hungry?” “Yes, I have taken nothing the whole day.” She pointed to where a guard of milk was kept. She seemed to be avoiding my eyes and I asked her, “Why do you look sad today mother?” The visitor smiled exposing her white teeth. She did not answer but said,” Go out and check on the goats and at dusk bring them home.

Why was the writer late to start school?
1. He was too old to start school
2. The school was far from their home
3. His father wasn’t keen on taking him to school
4. He was too young to start school.
Which of these sentences is false?
1. The writer hadn’t started school at the age of eight
2. The writer’s mother was keen on education
3. The writer was the last born of his family
4. The writer’s brothers were illiterate
Where were the writer’s siblings A.In the village
1. In school too
2. Away in town
3. In different cities
The word weary as used in the passage means:- A.very thin
1. well dressed
2. poorly dressed
3. very tired
Which of these sentences best describes the writer’s school?
1. Logs for desks, mud walls, thatched roof
2. Logs for walls, thatched roof, wooden desks
3. Thatched roof, mud walls, wooden desks D. Mud walls, logs for desks and logs for walls 181. What was Naitula looking for?
4. Her classmates
5. A place to sit
6. Her note book
7. Her brother
Why was the boy surprised?
1. He had been talked to harshly.
2. When Naitula forcefully snatched the book from him.
3. He had taken his friends book.
4. He was copying notes.
Which of the following did not happen when the rainy season came? A.Plants germinated.
1. Fruits ripened.
2. Birds had enough to feed on.
3. Flowers blossomed.
From the passage we learn that the writer :- A.disliked wild berries
1. never wore shoes
2. had never seen butterflies
3. hardly stopped on the way
What could the writer see at a distance?
1. Goats and cows grazing
2. his father grazing
3. herds of cattle grazing
4. his father driving cattle home
Which of the following shows a man’s worth? Number of
1. manyatta
2. children
3. women
4. livestock
According to the passage
1. Four visitors were seated to the right side
2. the writer had had nothing all day
3. there were some strange women seated
4. writer’s mother looked happy that day

Read the following passage carefully and then answer question 188-200.

The old man found the children gathered at the same place. As soon as they saw him they asked him to tell them another story. The children were becoming a regular part of the old man’s daily life.

Without them in the evening he felt lonely. The evenings seemed long and boring. It is funny how habits develop, he thought. At first he could easily pass an evening all by himself and feel quite happy. Now he needed the company of the children for the evening to feel complete.

Funny, he thought to himself as he sat down on his favorite chair. It is just like that nasty habit of taking snuff that he had developed. At first he did it as a joke, just for fun. He felt he could stop the habit if and when he wanted to, but in time he found he had to have some snuff every few hours. If he did not, he would get all nervous and shaky. Now he was getting hooked on to being with the children.

“Oh well,” he said to himself, “at least that is a good habit to catch. It cannot make you lose your senses like Mzee Okong’o did”. He had spoken aloud without realizing it. “What happened to Mzee Okongo?” The children asked, all together. The old man let out a short laugh. He had been caught off guard by the children and he knew he had to tell them the story of Mzee Okong’o.

For Mzee Okong’o it had all started like a joke. It was during the wedding of his daughter many years before. During such ceremonies, the bride was required to give her father a horn of beer in front of friends and relatives. Having given her father the beer, the father would ask; “My daughter, are you asking me to drink this beer brought by these people? Are you telling me before,this crowd, that you will never ask me to vomit it”? This was meant to confirm in public whether the girl had completely made up her mind to marry the man. As her sign of agreeing to get married to the man whose family had brought the beer the girl would answer: “Yes, my father. I am asking you to drink it and I will never ask you to vomit it.”

If the father drank the beer, it showed he had agreed that his daughter could get married to the man who asked for her hand in marriage. Mzee Okong’o had thus made his first contact with alcohol after a very long time. He felt good and light headed after the first horn full and he asked for another second horn full more than the first.

In time, he was into his fifth and sixth horn of beer. Thereafter, he had lost count and slipped into a coma. He did not know when and how his guests had gone home. He could not remember what happened or what he might have said or done. Did he behave well? Did he abuse people in his speech? Did he pass urine in public? Did he fall or break wind loudly?

From the first paragraph, we can tell that the old man
1. found the children playing
2. never needed the children’s presence
3. hardly felt lonely at all
4. enjoyed narrating stories now and then.
Without them in the evening he felt lonely…..”them” refers to
1. his daughters
2. the children
3. his family
4. the villagers
What made the old man’s evening complete? A.the long and boring evenings
1. the practice he had started
2. the gathering of children
3. the funny habits he had developed
“Snuff” is an example of
1. clinical medicine
2. herbal medicine
3. hard drug
4. traditional medicine
The old man felt nervous and shaky before taking snuff. This means
1. he was sick
2. he felt cold
3. he was excited
4. he was an addict
The old man started the nasty habit………
1. as a way of letting out his anger
2. to attract more customers
3. as a way of passing time
4. to impress the children 194. Why did the old man chuckle? A.He knew he had to narrate a story
5. He had been day-dreaming
6. The children had made a joke
7. He had taken too much snuff
During the wedding the bride was supposed to do all the following except?
1. She had to give her father a horn of beer
2. The giving out of beer was witnessed by relatives
3. Issuing of beer was in front of neighbors and relatives
4. The horn of beer was given infront of friends
What did Mzee Okong’o do during his daughter’s wedding?
1. He vomited the beer he had taken
2. He gave his daughter a hornfull of beer C.He narrated a story to his guest

D.He took six hornfills of beer.

By vomiting the beer this meant that A.the girl had agreed partially to wed the man
1. the father didn’t want the girl wed
2. the girl had not agreed to become a wife
3. the man had sensed that was not well
The beer had been brought by the man’s family, this can be compared to A.wealth
1. dowry
2. poverty
3. thanks-giving
How many horn-fills of beer did Okong’o have? A.Two
1. six
2. uncountable
3. seven
The last paragraph tells us that the old man slipped into a “coma” this means? A.He became unconscious.
1. He fell into deep sleep.
2. He was conscious.
3. He was completely drank.

EXPECTED QUESTIONS IN KCPE 2023

ENGLISH: SECTION B

COMPOSITION

Candidates have 40 minutes each question to write the compositions. Make them as interesting as possible!

Q1. I hurried back home and went straight to the house. I was about to enter my room when I realized something very unusual in the sitting room…………………………. (40 marks)

Q2. We were quietly reading our books in class when suddenly…………………. (40 marks)

Q3. The function was supposed to begin at 11 o’clock. However, by 1 o’clock the guest of honor

had not yet arrived…………………..(40 marks)

Q5. It was very rare to see our class teacher coming to school late. On that particular day, we were all…………………… (40 marks)

Q6. As I walked along the lonely path, I was attracted to the noises from a nearby bush. I decided to go and find what was happening…………………… (40 marks)

Q7. It was the morning we had all been looking forward to. The bus arrived on time and soon, we were all on board with all our teachers………………. (40 marks)

Q8. The members of the Environmental Club woke up early that Friday morning to go to their

long-awaited trip. (40 marks)

Q9. The stadium was packed to capacity. People had come from far wide to watch what promised to be an entertaining football match………………..(40 marks)

Q10. I was woken up by screams that rent the air. I……… (40 marks) ………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

PRINT ATLEAST 3 PAGES OF WRITING SPACE FOR EACH COMPOSITION QUESTION.

EXPECTED QUESTIONS IN KCPE 2023

ENGLISH: SECTION B

COMPOSITION

Candidates have 40 minutes each question to write the compositions. Make them as interesting as possible!

Q1. I hurried back home and went straight to the house. I was about to enter my room when I realized something very unusual in the sitting room…………………………. (40 marks)

Q2. We were quietly reading our books in class when suddenly…………………. (40 marks)

Q3. The function was supposed to begin at 11 o’clock. However, by 1 o’clock the guest of honor

had not yet arrived…………………..(40 marks)

Q5. It was very rare to see our class teacher coming to school late. On that particular day, we were all…………………… (40 marks)

Q6. As I walked along the lonely path, I was attracted to the noises from a nearby bush. I decided to go and find what was happening…………………… (40 marks)

Q7. It was the morning we had all been looking forward to. The bus arrived on time and soon, we were all on board with all our teachers………………. (40 marks)

Q8. The members of the Environmental Club woke up early that Friday morning to go to their

long-awaited trip. (40 marks)

Q9. The stadium was packed to capacity. People had come from far wide to watch what promised to be an entertaining football match………………..(40 marks)

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

PRINT ATLEAST 3 PAGES OF WRITING SPACE FOR EACH COMPOSITION QUESTION.

Teachers' Resources

GEOGRAPHY SYLLABUS FREE PDF DOWNLOAD

October 5, 2025 Maverick John Leave a comment

GEOGRAPHY Examination Syllabus *

FORM 1

INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHY
Definition 1. Geography 2. environment
branches of geography
physical Geography
Human Geography
importance study of geography
relationship between geography and other disciplines
THE EARTH AND THE SOLAR SYSTEM 1. composition of the solar system
ori, shape,size,and position of the earth in the solar system 3. rotation and revolution of the earth and their effects
structure of the earth
the atmosphere
the hydrosphere
the lithosphere/crust
the asthenosphere /mantle
the core (outer and inner core)

WEATHER

definition of weather
elements of weather
factors for siting weather station
instrument for measuring elements of weather condition
recording and calculating weather conditions
structure and composition of the atmosphere
weather forecasting
factors influencing weather
STATISTICAL METHODS
definition of statistics
types of statistical data
source of statistical data
method of collecting data
methods of recording data
analysis of data by working out
arithmetic mean
median
mode
percentage
range
statistical representation through;
simple lines
simple bars
combination bar and line graph
simple wind rose
advantage and disadvantage of each method of data presentation
MAPS AND MAP WORK
definition of pictures, plans and maps
distinction between pictures, plans and maps
types of maps
atlas maps
topographical maps
sketch maps
uses o maps
maral information
map scales
estimations and measurements
calculation of area of regular and irregular shopes
FIELD WORK
Definition of field work
types of field work
importance of field work
field work procedure
problems likely to be encountered during field study
field work within the local environment
MINERALS AND ROCKS
Definition of minerals 1. rocks 2. characteristics of minerals 3. classification of rock according to mode of formation 4. characteristics of rocks 5. distribution of major types of rocks in Kenya 6. significance of rocks in Kenya
MINING
Definition of mining
factors influencing the occurrence of minerals and their exploitation
methods of mining
distribution of major minerals in kenya
significance of minerals in kenya
problems fancing the mining industry in kenya
effects of mining on the enviroment
study of trona on lake magadi
gold amd diamond in south Africa
petroleum in middle east

* FORM 2

INTERNAL LAND FORMING PROCESSES
Earth movement 1. definition 2. types of movements horizontal and vertical 3. Causes
Theories of
Continental Drift
Plate tectonics
Folding
definition
Processes
types of folds and the resultant features
World distribution of folds mountain systems
Significance to human activities
Faulting
Definition
Processes
Types of faults and the resultant features
A study of the great rift valley
World distribution of features due to faulting
Significance of faulting to human activities
Vulcanicity
definition
types and the resultant features
World distribution of features due to vulcanicity
Significance of vulcanicity to human activities
Earthquakes
Definition
causes
measurements
Distribution of major earthquake zones in the world
effects of earthquake
MAP WORK
Direction and bearing 1. distinction between direction and bearing 2. Traditional and modern methods of showing direction 3. Calculation of bearing
Location of places using
Direction, bearing, and distance
Places names
Latitude and longitudes
Grid reference system
Methods of representing relief on topographical maps
PHOTOGRAPH WORK
types of photographs
Parts of a photograph
interpretation of a photograph by
Estimating actual size of photographs
Sketching from photographs
Studying physical features and human activities in

photographs

STATISTICAL METHODS
Statistical presentation, analysis and interpretation of: 1. comparative group multiple line graphs 2. Comparative group multiple bar graphs 3. Divided bars rectangles
advantage and disadvantage of each method of data presentation
CLIMATE
Distinction between weather and climate
Factors influencing climate
Distribution and characteristics of climatic regions of
Kenya
The world
Causes effects and possible solution to
Aridity
Desertification
Causes and consequences of climate change
VEGETATION
DEFINITION OF VEGETATION
Factors influencing the distribution of vegetation 3. Characteristics of major vegetation region of – Kenya – The world 4. Significance of vegetation 5. Field work
FORESTRY 1. definition 1. Forestry 2. Forest
Factors influencing the distribution and types of natural forest 3. importance of forests and forest products to Kenya 4. Problems facing forestry in Kenya 5. Management and conservation of forests with specific emphasis to Kenya 6. Related study on softwood in Kenya and Canada

* FORM 3

STATISTICAL METHODS 1. statistical presentation, analysis and interpretation of
Compound/cumulative bar graphs
proportional circles
Pie charts/dividing circles
advantages and disadvantages
MAP WORK
INTERPRETATION of physical features and human activities on topographical maps
Land forms
vegetation
Drainage
economic activities
Settlements
Enlargement and reduction of maps 3. Drawing of cross sections 4. calculations and interpretation of
vertical exaggeration
gradient
Intervisibility
EXTERNAL LAND FORMING PROCESSES
Weathering 1. definition 2. Agents 3. Types and processes 4. Significance of weathering
Mass wasting
Definition
Factors influencing mass wasting
Types and processes
Effects of mass wasting on the physical and human environments
Hydrological cycle
Definition
Process
Significance
Action of rivers
Definition
the work of rivers and the development of rivers
The resultant features
River capture and rejuvenation
Drainage patterns
The significance of rivers and the resultant

features

Lakes
Definition of lake
Formation and classification of lakes
Significance of lakes
Oceans Seas and their coasts
distinction between oceans and seas
Nature of ocean water
water movement meaning causes and significance of
Wave action and the resultant features
types of coast
significance of oceans ,coast and coastal features
Action of wind and water in arid areas
Process and the resultant features
Significance of the resultant features
Action of water in limestone areas 1. Process of surface and underground water and the resultant features 9. Glaciation
Definition of
Process of glaciation and the resultant features in

highlands and low lands areas 3. Significance of glaciation

Field work

SOILS
Definition of soil
Composition of soil
Soil forming processes
Properties and characteristics of soils
Soil profile and soil catena
Soil degeneration
definition
Types of soil degeneration
Soil erosion
Classification of soils
Significance of soils
Management and conservation of soil
AGRICULTURE
Definition of agriculture
Factors influencing agriculture
Types of agriculture
Crop farming
major cash crops in kenya
study of Tea Sugar cane,and maize
Study of cocoa in Ghana
Oil palm in Nigeria
Related study in coffe in kenya and brazil,wheat in

kenya and canada ,horticalture in kenya and the netherlands

Livestock Farming
Pastrol farming in kenya
Daily farming in kenya and Denmark
Beef farming in kenya and Argentina
Field work

* FORM 4

STATISTICAL METHODS
Statistical representation through age-sex pyramids
Analysis and interpretation of
Age-sex pyramids
Dot maps
Choropleth maps
LAND RECLAMATION 1. A study of 1. mwea-Tebera irrigation scheme 2. Pekera irrigation schemes
Definition of
land reclamation
land rehabilitation
Significance of irrigation farming in kenya
Problems experienced in irrigation farming in kenya
Methods of land reclamation and rehabilitation kenya
Related studies on land reclamation in kenya and the Netherlands
FISHING
Definition of; 1. Fishing 2. Fisheries 2. Factors influencing fishing 3. Distribution of major fishing grounds of the world 4. types and methods of fishing 5. Fresh water and marine fisheries in East Africa 6. Problems facing in Kenya and their solutions 7. Comparative study of fishing in Kenya and Japan 8. Management and conservation of fresh water and marine fisheries
WILDLIFE AND TOURISM
Wildlife 1. Definition of wildlife 2. factors influencing the distribution of wildlife in East Africa 3. Distinction between game reserve ,national park and sanctuaries 4. location of national parks major reserves and sanctuaries in East Africa 5. Significance of wildlife 6. Problems facing wildlife in East Africa 7. Management and conservation of wildlife in East Africa
TOURISM
Definition of ;
Distinction between domestic and international tourism
factors influencing tourism in kenya
Tourism attraction in kenya
Significance of tourism
Problems facing and associated with tourism in Kenya
Related study on tourism in Switzerland
The future of tourism in Kenya
ENERGY
Definition of energy
Sources and types of energy
Electric power projects in Kenya and Uganda
Hydro-electric power projects
Geothermal power projects in Kenya
Location and other hydro-electric power projects in Africa 5. Significance of energy 6. The energy crisis 7. Management and conservation of energy
INDUSTRY
definition 1. Industry 2. Industrialization
factors influencing the location and development of industries 3. Types of industries 4. Distribution of industries in kenya 5. Significance of industrialization in kenya 6. Problems of industrialization and their possible solutions 7. A study on 1. Cottage industry in india 2. Iron and steel industry in the Ruhr region of Germany 3. Car manufacture and electronics industry in Japan
TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION
Definition 1. Transport 2. Communication
Mode of transport and types of communication 3. The role of transport and communication in the economic development of Africa 4. Problems facing transport and communication in Africa andefforts being made to solve them
A study of the Great lakes and the St Lawrence seaway
TRADE
Types of trade
factors influencing trade
Major exports and imports of kenya
Significance of trade to kenya
problems facing trade in kenya
The future of international trade in kenya
The role played by the following regional trading blocks

in the economic of their respective regions

COMESA
SADAC
ECOWAS
EU
POPULATION
Definition of population
Factors influencing population
Factors influencing population growth in ; 1. fertility
Motality 3. Migration
Population structure 5. Consequences of population growth and structure 6. Related studies on population in kenya and Sweden

SETTLEMENT

Definition 1. settlement 2. Urbanization
Factors influencing
Settlements
patterns of settlement
Distribution of major urban centers in East Africa
Factors influencing the growth of major urban center in East Africa
Study of the following towns in kenya
Thika
Kisumu
Eldoret
Related studies with the following
Cities Nairobi and New York
Port Mombasa and Rotter
Effects of urbanization
MANAGEMENT AND CONSERVATION OF THE ENVIRONMENT
definition of; 1. Management 2. conservation
the need for environmental management and conservation
Environmental hazards
Selected environmental hazards the associated problems and measures for combating them
Floods
Lightning
Wind storm
Pest and diseases
Pollution
Environmental management and conservation measures in kenya 6. field work

Teachers' Resources

History pdf notes Form 1-4

October 5, 2025 Maverick John Leave a comment

Get the latest and free History notes for form 1, 2, 3 and 4 here.

DOWNLOAD FREE HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT NOTES

Download more notes and thousands of other free teachers’ resources here; Teachers’ Free Resources Portal.

FREE HISTORY NOTES FOR FORM 1

FREE HISTORY NOTES FOR FORM 1-4

FREE HISTORY NOTES FOR FORM 3

FREE HISTORY NOTES FOR FORM 2

FREE HISTORY NOTES FOR FORM 1-4 COMPLETE

FREE HISTORY NOTES FOR KCSE

FREE HISTORY NOTES FOR FORM 1

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FREE HISTORY NOTES FOR FORM 1-4 UPDATED

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Teachers' Resources

2022 Form 1 Admission Results, Letters and Joining Instructions

October 5, 2025 Maverick John Leave a comment

2021 KCPE Candidates 2022 Form 1 Placements

To check the secondary school you have been admitted to online, and to download the admission letter; Click here: https://education.go.ke/index.php/online-services/form-one-selection and enter the Index number as per the category of school. Also enter the county and sub-county that the candidate sat for KCPE and follow the instructions.

Download and print your admission letter and present it to the school where you did your KCPE for endorsement.

Remember to carry along your passport size photos, and results slip for endorsement at the school too before presentation to the secondary school where you are required to report.

Secondary School Form One Selection. How to check the school you have been admitted to. Form One intake. List of admission into either National, County & Extra-County schools. www.education.go.ke/ form 1 selection website!

Or send SMS to 22263.

Extra county schools are the former high-performing provincial schools.

Form One Selection 2022 – Secondary School Form One Selection rules and results. Form 1 selection 2022 for 2021 KCPE Pupils.

Form 1 Selection – Form One Selection Confirmation by SMS & Online

Admission letters are posted on the Education ministry website www.education.go.ke.
However, parents can check the schools their children have been selected to join by sending an SMS to 22263.
You are required to SMS with the candidate’s Index Number to 22263 from any network.
To check for admission letters online, log on to www.education.go.ke, select the county and sub-county the candidate sat KCPE then key in your index number and submit.
To complete the process, click on the admission letter at the bottom of the page.
How to check the secondary school (form one selection) you have been admitted to via SMS and online:
To check the secondary school you have been admitted to online, and to download the admission letter; Click here: https://education.go.ke/index.php/online-services/form-one-selection and enter the Index number as per the category of school. Also enter the county and sub-county that the candidate sat for KCPE and follow the instructions.
To check the secondary school you have been admitted to via SMS, send an SMS with your Index Number to 22263 from any network. Cost of SMS is Kenya Shillings 25!

Teachers' Resources

Free Chemistry Notes, Exams, Schemes of Work, Lesson Plans: Form 1 to 4

October 5, 2025 Maverick John Leave a comment

Free Chemistry Notes, Exams, Schemes of Work, Lesson Plans: Form 1 to 4

FORM 3 CHEMISTRY NOTES HANDBOOK

Teachers’ Resources Media Team @Educationnewshub.co.ke –

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KNEC CHEMISTRY SYLLABUS

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KNEC KCSE CHEMISTRY SYLLABUS CHEMISTRY Syllabus FORM 1 INTRODUCTION TO CHEMISTRY Definition of chemistry and its role in society Properties of matter States of matter Mixtures…

CHEMISTRY LESSON PLANS FORM 3

Teachers’ Resources Media Team @Educationnewshub.co.ke

FORM 3 TERM 1 SUBJECT: CHEMISTRY. TOPIC 1: GAS LAWS. TEACHER’S NAME: ………………………………………… TSC NO: ……………. SCHOOL/ INSTITUTION : ………………………………………………………………. FORM: 3 TERM: 1 YEAR…………….. NUMBER OF STUDENTS……. SUBJECT: …

KCSE 2019 national results and ranking per subject- Chemistry

Knec Schools Portal Media Team @Educationnewshub.co.ke – May 5, 2023

Alliance Boys High school posted a Chemistry mean of 9.763 (B+ plus) to lead in the 2019 Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education (KCSE) examination….

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KUCCPS News Portal Media Team @Educationnewshub.co.ke – May 5, 2023

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NITROGEN AND ITS COMPOUNDS FORM 3 CHEMISTRY NOTES

Teachers’ Resources Media Team @Educationnewshub.co.ke – May 5, 2023

NITROGEN AND ITS COMPOUNDS Objectives By the end of the chapter the learner should be able to: (a) Describe how nitrogen is isolated from air. (b) Describe how nitrogen…

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KUCCPS News Portal Media Team @Educationnewshub.co.ke – May 5, 2023

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This is why the KCSE Chemistry Paper 3 exam may have leaked; Eastmore Girls…

KNEC News Media Team @Educationnewshub.co.ke – May 5, 2023

The Chemistry practical paper that was done during the 2019 Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education, KCSE, exams may have leaked long before it was…

FORM 4 CHEMISTRY Comprehensive tutorial notes

Teachers’ Resources Media Team @Educationnewshub.co.ke – May 5, 2023

A.ACIDS AND BASES At a school laboratory: (i)An acid may be defined as a substance that turn litmus red. (ii)A base may be defined as a substance…

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Murang’a University Course List, Fees, Requirements, How to Apply

October 5, 2025 Maverick John Leave a comment

Murang’a University Course List, Fees, Requirements, How to Apply

UNDERGRADUATE PROGRAMMES

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELCTRONICS ENGINEERING

COURSE	DURATION
Bachelor of Science in Electrical and Electronics Engineering	10 semesters
Bachelor of Technology in Electrical and Electronics Engineering	8 semesters

DEPARTMENT OF ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY

COURSE	DURATION
Bachelor of Technology in Mechanical Engineering	8 semesters

SCHOOL OF HOSPITALITY AND TOURISM MANAGEMENT

DEPARTMENT OF HOSPITALITY, TRAVEL AND TOURISM MANAGEMENT

COURSE	DURATION
Bachelor of Tourism Management	8 semesters
Bachelor of Travel and Tours Management	8 semesters
Bachelor of Hospitality Management	8 Semesters
Bachelor of Science in Food Science and Technology	8 semesters

SCHOOL OF COMPUTING AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE

COURSE	DURATION
Bachelor of Science in Software Engineering	8 Semesters
Bachelor of Science in Computer Science	8 Semesters
Bachelor of Science in Computer Technology	8 Semesters

DEPARTMENT OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

COURSE	DURATION
Bachelor of Science in Information Technology	8 Semesters
Bachelor of Business Information Technology (BBIT)	8 Semesters

SCHOOL OF BUSINESS & ECONOMICS

DEPARTMENT OF HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

COURSE	DURATION
Bachelor of Science in Human Resource Management	8 Semesters
Bachelor of Science in Entrepreneurship & Enterprise Management	8 Semesters

DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

COURSE	DURATION
Bachelor of Development Studies with IT	8 semesters
Bachelor of Commerce	8 Semesters
Bachelor of Procurement and Supply Chain Management	8 Semesters

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

COURSE	DURATION
Bachelor of Science in Agriculture	8 Semesters
Bachelor of Science in Agricultural Education and Extension	8 Semesters
Bachelor of Science in Agribusiness Management and Enterprise Development	8 Semesters
Bachelor of Science in Agricultural Economics and Rural Development	8 Semesters

SCHOOL OF PURE, APPLIED, AND HEALTH SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICAL AND BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES

COURSE	DURATION
Bachelor of Science in Analytical Chemistry	8 semesters
Bachelor of Science in Industrial Chemistry	8 semesters
Bachelor of Science (General)	8 semesters

DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS AND ACTUARIAL SCIENCE

COURSE
Bachelor of Science in Mathematics and Computer Science	8 semesters
Bachelor of Science in Mathematics and Economics	8 semesters
Bachelor of Science in Applied Statistics with Programming	8 semesters
Bachelor of Science in Actuarial Science	8 semesters

DEPARTMENT OF MEDICAL LABORATORY SCIENCE

COURSE	DURATION
Bachelor of Science in Community Health	8 semesters
Bachelor of Science in Medical Laboratory Science	8 semesters
Bachelor of Science in Environmental Health	8 semesters
Bachelor of Science in Nursing	8 semesters

SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION TECHNOLOGY

COURSE	DURATION
Bachelor of Technology Education (with options; Civil Engineering, Mechanical Engineering and Electrical Engineering)	8 semesters
Bachelor of Education (Science)	8 Semesters
Bachelor of Education (Arts)	8 Semesters

DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES

COURSE	DURATION
Bachelor of Linguistics and Communication Studies	8 semesters
Bachelor of Journalism and Media Studies	8 semesters

DEPARTMENT OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

COURSE	DURATION
Bachelor of Science in Criminology and Security Studies	8 semesters
Bachelor of Arts in Public Administration	8 semesters

INTAKE APPLICATION PROCEDURE

All application forms can be obtained from the office of the Registrar (Academic and Student Affairs), Murang’a University of Technology, upon payment of a non-refundable fee of Kshs. 500/= for Certificate courses, Kshs. 1,000/= for Diploma courses, Kshs. 1,500 for Undergradu- ate courses and Kshs 2,000/= for post-graduate programmes. Application forms can also be downloaded from the university Website: www.mut.ac.ke.

Payments should be made either in Cash deposit or Bankers Cheque in favour of Murang’a University of Technology.

Duly completed forms with the documentation should be delivered to the Registrar (ASA)

office or sent via email to admissions@mut.ac.ke or posted addressed to:

The Registrar (ASA), Murang’a University of Technology,

O. Box 75 – 10200, Murang’a. Tel: 0705939269

www.mut.ac.ke

+254-771-370-824 +254-705-939-269

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Latest Business Studies Form Two Refined Notes

October 5, 2025 Maverick John Leave a comment

TOPIC 1: FORMS OF BUSINESS UNITS

TOPIC OBJECTIVES

BUSINESS UNITS

A business unit is an organization formed by one or more people with a view of engaging in a profitable activity.

Business units are generally classified into private or public sector business units’ i.e

Note: Private sector comprises of business organizations owned by private individuals while the public sector comprises business organizations owned by the government.

SOLE PROPRIETORSHIP

This is a business enterprise owned by one person who is called a sole trader or a sole proprietor. It is the most common form of business unit and usually found in retail trade e.g. in small shops, kiosks, agriculture e.t.c and for direct services e.g. cobblers saloons e.t.c

Characteristics/Features

The business is owned by one person
The capital is contributed by the owner and is usually small. The main source is from his savings and other sources can be from friends, bank or getting an inheritance
The owner enjoys all the profits alone and also suffers the losses alone
The owner is personally responsible for the management of the business and sometimes he is assisted by members of his family or a few employees. He remains responsible for the success or failure of his/her business.
The sole proprietor has unlimited liability meaning that incase of failure to meet debts, his creditor can claim his personal property
There are very few legal requirements to start the business unit.
Sole proprietorship is flexible; it is very easy to change the location or the nature of business.

Formation

The formation of a sole proprietorship is very simple. Few legal formalities are required i.e. to start a sole proprietorship, one need only to raise the capital required and then apply for a trading license to operate the business small fee is paid and the trade license issued.

Sources of capital

The amount of capital required to start a sole proprietorship is small compared to other forms of business organizations. The main source of capital is the Owners savings. Additional capital may however be raised from the following;

Borrowing from friends, banks and other money lending institutions such as industries and commercial Development corporation(ICDC)and Kenya industrial estates
Inheritance
Personal savings
Getting goods on credit
Getting goods on hire purchase
Leasing or renting out one’s properties
Donations from friends and relatives
Ploughing back profit.

Management

The management of this kind of a business is under one person. The owner may however employ other people or get assistance from family members to run the business.

Some sole proprietorship may be big business organizations with several departments and quite a number of employees. However, the sole proprietor remains solely responsible for the success of failure of the business

Advantages of sole proprietorship

The capital required to start the business is small hence anybody who can spare small amounts of money can start one.
Few formal/legal procedures are required to set up this business
Decision making and implementation is fast because the proprietor does not have to consult anybody
The trader has close and personal contact with customers. This helps them in knowing exactly what the customers need and hence satisfying those needs
A sole proprietor is able to assess the credit-worthiness of his or her customers because of close personal relationship. Extending credit to a few carefully selected customers reduce the probability of bad debts.
The trader is accountable to him/herself
A sole trader is able to keep the top secrets of the business operations
He/she enjoys all the profit
A sole proprietorship is flexible. One can change the nature or even the location of business as need arises.

Disadvantages of sole proprietorship

Has unlimited liability. This means that if the assets available in the business are not enough to pay all the business debts the personal property of the owner such as house will be sold to meet the debts
There is insufficient capital for expansion because of scarce resources and lack of access to other sources
He/she is overworked and has no time for recreation.
There is lack of continuity in the sole proprietorship i.e the business is affected by sickness or death of the owner.
A sole proprietorship may not benefit from advantages realized by large scale enterprises (economies of large scale) such as access to loan facilities and large trade discounts.
Lack of specialization in the running of the business may lead to poor performance. This is because one person cannot manage all aspects of the business effectively. One maybe a good salesman for examples but a poor accountant.
Due to the size of the business, sole proprietorships do not attract and retain highly qualified and trained personnel.

Dissolution of sole proprietorships

Dissolution refers to the termination of the legal life of a business. The following circumstances may lead to the dissolution of a sole proprietorship:

Death or insanity of the owner.
Transfer of the business to another person- this transfers the rights and obligations of the business to the new owner.
Bankruptcy of the owner- this means that the owner lacks the financial capability to run the business.
The owner voluntarily decides to dissolve the business e.g due to continued loss making.
Passing of a law which renders the activities of the business illegal.
The expiry of the period during which the business was meant to operate

PARTNERSHIP:

This is a relationship between persons who engage in a business with an aim of making profits/ an association of two or more persons who run a business as co-owners. The owners are called Partners.

It is owned by a minimum of 2 and a maximum of 20 except for partnership who provide professional services e.g medicine and law which have a maximum of 50 persons.

Characteristics of partnership

Capital is contributed by the partners themselves.
Partnership has limited life that is it may end anytime because of the death, bankruptcy or withdrawal of partners.
Each partner acts as an agent of the firm with authority to enter into contracts.
Partners are co owners of a business, having an interest or claim in the business.
Responsibility, profit and losses are shared on an agreed basis.
All partners have equal right to participate in the management of the business. This right arises from the interest or claim of the partner as a co owner of the business.

Types of partnership

Partnerships can be classified/ categorized in either of the following ways:

According to the type/liability of partners
According to the period of operation
According to their activities.

According to the type or liability of partners

Under this classification, partnerships can either be;

General/ordinary partnership- Here all members have unlimited liability which means in case a partnership is unable to pay its debts, the personal properties of the partner will be sold off to pay the debts.
Limited partnerships- In limited partnership members have limited liabilities where liability or responsibility is restricted to the capital contributed.

This means that incase the partnership cannot pay its debts; the partners only lose the amount of capital each has contributed to the business and not their personal property. However, there must be one partner whose liabilities are unlimited.

According to the period/duration of operation

When partnerships are classified according to duration of operation, they can either be;

Temporary partnership-These are partnerships that are formed to carry out a specific task for a specific time after which the business automatically dissolves.
Permanent partnerships- These are partnerships formed to operate indefinitely. They are also called a partnership at will.
According to their Activity- Under this mode of classification, partnerships can either be:
Trading partnerships

This is a partnership whose main activity is processing, manufacturing, construction or purchase and sale of goods.

Non – trading partnerships

This is a partnership whose main activity is to offer services such as legal, medical or accounting services to members of the public.

Types of partners

Partners may be classified according to;

Role played by the partners

Active partner; He is also known as acting partner as he plays an active part in the day-to-day running of the business.
Sleeping/dormant partner; He does not participate in the management of the partnership business. Although he invests his capital in the partnership, his profit is lower as he is not active. He is also referred to as passive or silent partner.

Liabilities of the partners for the business debts;

General partner; He/she has unlimited liabilities.
Limited partner; He/she has limited liabilities

Ages of partners

Major partner; This is a partner who is 18 years and above. He is responsible for all debts of the business.
Minor partner; This is a partner who has not attained the age of 18 years but has been admitted with the consent of other partners. Once he reaches 18 years, he then decides if he wants to be a partner or not. Before he attains the age of 18, he takes part in the sharing of profits but does not take part in the management of the business.

iv) Capital contribution

Nominal/Quasi partner; He does not contribute capital but allows the business to use his/ her name as a partner; for the purpose of influencing customers or for prestige.

-He/she can also be a person who was once a partner and has retired in form of a loan. This loan carries interest at an agreed rate.

-The quasi partner shares the profit of the business as a reward for using his/her name.

b) Real partner; He/she is one who contributes capital to the business.

-Other types of partners include secret partners, retiring partners and incoming partners

i) A secret partner; is one who actively participates in the management of the firm but is not disclosed to the public. In most cases secret partners are also limited partners.
ii) A retiring partner; Also known as outgoing partner is one who is leaving a partnership

-He may retire with the consent of all the other partners or according to a previous agreement.

iii) Incoming partner; Is one who is admitted to an existing partnership.

Formation

-People who want to form a partnership must come together and agree on how the proposed business will be run to avoid future misunderstanding.

-The agreement can either be oral (by use of mouth) or within down. A written agreement is called a partnership deed.

-The contents of the partnership deed vary from one partnership to another depending on the nature of the business, but generally it contains;

Name, location and address of the business
Name, address and occupation of the partners
The purpose of the business
Capital to be contributed by cash partner
Rate of interest on capital
Drawings by partners and rate of interest on drawings
Salaries and commissions to partners
Rate of interests on loans from partners to the business
Procedures of dissolving the partnership
Profit and loss sharing ratio
How to admit a new partner
What to do when a partner retires dies or is expelled
The rights to inspect books of accounts
Who has the authority to act on behalf of other partners.

Once the partnership deed is ready, the business may be registered with the registrar of firms on payment of a registration fee.

In case a partnership deed is not drawn, the provisions of partnership act of 1963 (Kenya) applies. The act contains the following rights and duties of a partner;

All partners are entitled to equal contribution of capital
No salary is to be allowed to any partner
No interest is to be allowed on capital
No interest is to be charged on drawings
All profits and losses are to be shared equally
Every partner has the right to inspect the books of accounts
Every partner has the right to take part in decision making
Interest is to paid on any loans borrowed by partners (The % rate varies from one country to another)
During dissolution the debts from outside people are paid first then loans from partners and lastly partners capital.
No partner should carry out a competing business
Any change in business such as admission of new partners must be through the agreement of all existing partners.
Compensation must be given to a partner who incurs any loss when executing the duties of the business.

Sources of capital

Partners contribution
Loans from banks and other financial institutions
Getting items on hire purchase
Trade credit
Ploughing back profit
Leasing and renting.

Advantages of partnership

Unlike sole proprietorship, partnership can raise more capital.
Work is distributed among the partners. This reduces the workload for each partner
Varied professional/skilled labour; various partners are professionals in various different areas leading to specialization
They can undertake any form of business agreed upon by all the partners
There are few legal requirements in the formation of a partnership compared to a limited liability company.
Losses and liabilities are shared among partners
Continuity of business is not affected by death or absence of a partner as would be in the case of a sole proprietorship
Members of partnership enjoy more free days and are flexible than owners of a company
A Partnership just like sole proprietorship is exempted from payment of certain taxes paid by large business organizations.

Disadvantages of partnership

A mistake made by one of the partners may result in losses which are shared by all the partners
Continued disagreement among the partners can lead to termination of the partnership
Decision-making is slow since all the partners must agree
A partnership that relies heavily on one partner may be adversely affected on retirement or death of the partner
A hard working partner may not be rewarded in proportion to his/her effort because the profits are shared among all the partners
There is sharing of profits by the partners hence less is received by each partner
Few sources of capital, due to uncertainty in the continuity of the business few financial institutions will be willing to give long-term loans to the firm.

Dissolution of partnership

A partnership may be dissolved under any of the following circumstances:

A mutual agreement by all the partners to dissolve the business
Death insanity or bankrupting of a partner
A temporary partnership on completion of the intended purpose or at the end of the agreed time.
A court order to dissolve the partnership
Written request for dissolution by a partner
If the business engages in unlawful practices
Retirement or admission of a new partner may lead to a permanent or temporary dissolution
Continued disagreements among the partners

INCORPORATED FORMS OF BUSINESS UNITS

These are businesses that have separate legal entities from that of their owners. They include:

CO-OPERATIVES

-A co-operative society is a form of business organization that is owned by and run for the economic welfare of its members

-It is a body of persons who have joined together to do collectively what they were previously doing individually for mutual benefit.

Example

In Kenya the co-operative movement was started by white settlers in 1908 to market their agricultural produce. In this case, they knew that they could sell their produce better if they were as a group and not alone

Principles of co-operatives

Open and voluntary membership

Membership is open and voluntary to any person who has attained the age of 18 years. No one should be denied membership due to social, political, tribal or religious differences. A member is also free to leave the society at will

Democratic Administration

The principle is one man one vote. Each member of the co-operative has only one vote irrespective of the number of shares held by him or how much he buys or sells to the society

Dividend or repayment

-Any profit/surplus made at the end of every financial year should be distributed to the members in relations to their contribution.

-Part of the profit may be retained/reserved/put in to strengthen the financial position of the society.

Limited interest on share capital

-A little or no interest is paid on share capital contributed (co-operatives do not encourage financial investment habits but to enhance production, to encourage savings and serve the members)

Promotion of Education

Co-operative societies should endeavor to educate their members and staff on the ideas of the society in order to enhance/improve quality of decisions made by the concerned parties.

Education is conducted through seminars, study tours, open days

Co-operation with other co-operatives

C-operatives must learn from each others experience since they have a lot in common.

-Their co-operation should be extended to local national and international.

Features of co-operatives

Membership is open to all persons so long as they have a common interest. Members are also free to discontinue their membership when they desire so
Co-operative societies have a perpetual existence; death, bankruptcy or retirement of a member does not affect its operations
They are managed in a democratic manner. Every member has one vote when electing the managerial committee irrespective of the number of shares held.
The main aim is to serve the interest of the members where profit is not the over riding factor.
Co-operative societies have limited liabilities
There must be a minimum of 10 people with no maximum membership.
Co-operatives have a separate legal entity from the members who formed it i.e they can own property sue and be sued
Any profit made by the society is distributed to the members on the basis of the services rendered by each member but not according to the capital contributed.

Formation

-Co-operative societies can be formed by people who are over eighteen years regardless of their economic, political or social background.

-There must be a minimum of 10 persons and no maximum no.

-The members draft rules and regulations to govern the operations of the proposed society i.e. by-laws, which are then submitted to the commissioner of co-operatives for approval

-The registrar then approves the by-laws and issues a certificate of registration

-If the members are unable to draw up their own by-laws, the co-operative societies Act of 1966 can be adopted in part or whole

Management

-A co-perative society is composed/run by a committee usually of nine members elected by the members in a general meeting

-The management committee elects the chairman, secretary and treasurer as the executive committee members, who act on behalf of all the members and can enter into contracts borrow money institute and depend suits and other legal proceedings for the society

-The committee members can be voted out in an A.G.M if they don’t perform as expected.

TYPES OF CO-OPERATIVES SOCIETIES IN KENYA

May be grouped according to;

Nature of their activities

Producer co-operatives
Consumer co-operatives
Savings and credit co-operatives

Level of operations

Primary co-operatives
Secondary co-operatives

Producer co-operatives

This is an association of producers who have come together to improve the production and marketing of their products.

Functions

Obtaining better prices for their members products
Providing better storage facilities for their products
Providing better and reliable transport means for moving the products from the sources to the market and building feeder roads
Providing loans to members
Providing services of grading, packing and processing to the members
Providing farm inputs e.g. fertilizers, seeds, insecticides e.t.c on credit to members
Educating and advising members on better methods of farming through seminars, field trips, films and demonstration

-In this type of co-operative members are paid according to the quantity of the produce a member has delivered to the society.

Examples,

KCC-Kenya Co-operative Creameries

K.P.C.U-Kenya Planters Co-operatives Union

K.G.G.C.U-Kenya Grain Growers Co-operative Union

Consumer Co-operatives

-These are formed by a group of consumers to buy goods on wholesome and sell them to the members at existing market prices.

-Their aim is to eliminate the wholesalers and retailers and hence obtain goods more cheaply

-The co-operatives allow their members to buy goods on credit or in cash

-Members of the public are also allowed to buy from the society at normal prices thereby enabling the society to make more profits

-The profits realized is shared among the members in proportion to their purchases i.ethe more a member buys, the buyer his/her share of profit

Examples;-Nairobi consumer co-operative union, Bee-hive consumer co-operative society and City-chicken consumer co-operative society

Advantages

Sell goods of high quality
Sell goods to members at fair prices
Sell goods to other people at normal prices thereby making more profit
Buy goods directly from the producers thereby eliminating middlemen. They are therefore able to make more profit
Can give credit facilities to the members
Can pay interest on capital to the members
Sell a variety of goods to the members at a place where they can easily get them

Disadvantages

Consumer co-operatives are not popular in Kenya because of the following

They face stiff competition from large scale retailers such as supermarkets and multiple shops who buy goods directly from the producers and sell-them to consumers at low prices
Cannot offer to employ qualified staff
Majority of their members have low income, so raising off capital is a problem
Kenya, being an agricultural country, produces enough subsistence goods for itself. It therefore does not require consumer co-operatives
Reluctance of non-members to buy from the shops lowers the turn-over
Mismanagement of the shops is rampant

Savings and credit co-operatives societies (SACCO’S)

-They are usually formed by employed persons who save part of their monthly salary with their co-operative society, through check-off system

-Their money earns goods interest and when one has a significant amount saved, he/she become entitled to borrow money from the society for any personal project e.g. improving their farms, constructing houses, paying school fees e.t.c

-The SACCOS charge lower interest on loans given to members than ordinary banks and other financial institutions.

-The societies have few formalities or requirements to be completed before giving a loan. These are:

Membership
Members salary
Members saving
Guarantee from fellow members

-Profits earned by the SACCO’S maybe shared among the members inform of dividends.

-Most SACCO’S have insured their members savings and loans with co-operative insurance services (CIS).This means if a member dies his/her beneficiaries are not called upon to repay the loan and the members savings/shares is given to the beneficiaries.

-They are the main institutions that provide loans to most people who do not qualify for loans from commercial banks because they do not ask for securities such as title deeds required by the bank.

d) Primary co-operative societies

-These are co-operative societies composed of individuals who are either actual producers, consumers or people who join up together to save and obtain credit most conveniently

-Consumer co-operative societies and most SACCO’S are primary co-operative societies because they are composed of individuals.

-Most primary co-operative societies operate at the village level, others at district levels and a few at national levels.

e) Secondary co-operative societies

-They are usually referred to as unions

-They are generally composed of primary co-operative societies as their members

-They are either found at district levels or at national levels.

Advantages of co-operative societies;

Since the properties of co-operatives are owned collectively, they are able to serve the interest of the members affectively
They have limited liability
Membership is free and voluntary
Members share profits of a co-operative through dividend that are given
They have improved the standards of living of their members through increased income from their produce and through savings from incomes.
Co-operatives benefit their members through giving them credit facilities and financial loans which they could not have got from local banks
They are run on a democratic basis i.e. all members have an equal chance of being elected to the management committee.
Many co-operatives are large scale organizations hence able to get the benefits of large scale organizations e.g low production costs leading to low prices of products
Co-operative enjoy a lot of support from the government and when they are in financial and managerial problems, the government steps in to assist them

Disadvantages

Majority of the co-operatives are small in size and therefore cannot benefit from economies of scale.
Members have a right to withdraw from the society and when they do, co-operatives refunds the capital back which might create financial problems to the society.
Corruption and embezzlement of funds is a problem for many co-operatives.
Most co-operatives are not able to attract qualified managerial staff hence leading to mismanagement.
Many suffer from political interference. Sometimes; the election of the management committee is interceded with by some people with personal interest in certain candidates hence the best person may not be elected to run the affairs of the society. This leads to poor management and inefficiency.
Members may not take keen interest in the affairs of a co-operative society because their capital contribution is small.

Dissolution of co-operative societies

-A co-operative society may be dissolved under any of the following circumstances.

Order from commissioner of co-operatives
Voluntary dissolution by members
Withdrawal of members from the society leaving less than ten members
If the society is declared bankrupt

LIMITED LIABILITY COMPANIES (JOINT STOCK COMPANIES)

Defn: A company; Is an association of persons registered under the companies act who contribute capital in order to carry out business with a view of making a profit. The act of registering a company is referred to as incorporation. Incorporation creates an organization that is separate and distinct from the person forming it.

-A company is a legal entity that has the status of an ‘’artificial person”. It therefore has most of the rights and obligations of a human being. A company can therefore do the following;

Own property
Enter into contracts in its own name.
Borrow money.
Hire and fire employees.
Sue and be sued on its own right.
Form subordinate agencies, ie, agencies under its authority.
Disseminate or spread information.

–The owners (members) of a company are referred to as shareholders

FEATURES OF COMPANIES (LIMITED LIABILITY COMPANIES)

–A company in an artificial person and has the same rights as a natural person. It can therefore sue and be sued in a court of law, own property and enter into contracts in its own name.

–The members have limited liabilities.

–Companies have perpetual life which is independent of the lives of its owners. Death, insanity or bankruptcy of a member does not affect the existence of the company. (this is referred to as perpetual existence or perpetual succession)

– A company is created for a particular purpose or purposes.

Formation

-People who wish to form company are referred to as promoters

–The promoters submit the following documents to the registrar of companies:

Memorandum of Association

-This is a document that defines the relationship between the company and the outsiders. It contains the following:

a) Name of the company/Name clause; -The name of the company must be started and should end with the word “Limited” (Ltd).This indicates that the liability of the company is limited.

-Some companies end their names with “PLC” which stands for “Public limited company” which makes the public aware that although it is a limited liability company it is a public not private.

b) The objects of the company/objective clause;-This set out the activities that the company should engage in

-The activities listed in this clause serve as a warning to outsiders that the company is authorized in these activities only.

c) Situation clause;-Every company must have a registered office where official notices and other communication can be received and sent
d) Capital clause;-It also states that the amount of capital which the business can raise and the divisions of this capital into units of equal value called shares i.e. authorized share capital also called registered or nominal share capital.

-It also specifies the types of shares and the value of each share

e) Declaration clause:-This is a declaration signed by the promoters stating that they wish to form the company and undertake to buy shares in the proposed firm

-The declaration is signed by a minimum of seven promoters for public limited company and a minimum of two for private company.

-The memorandum of association also contains the names of the promoters

-The promoters signs against the memorandum showing details of their names, addresses, occupation and shares they intend to buy. Each signatory should agree to take at least one share.

Articles of Association

-This is a document that governs the internal operations of the company

-It also contains rules and regulations affecting the shareholders in relation to the company and in relation to the shareholders themselves.

-It contains the following;

Rights of each type of shareholder e.g. voting rights
Methods of calling meeting and procedures
Rules governing election of officials such as chairman of the company, directors and auditors
Rules regarding preparation and auditing of accounts
Powers, duties and rights of directors
Methods dealing with any alterations on the capital.

A list of directors with details of their names, addresses, occupations, shares subscribed and statements of agreement to serve as directors.
Declaration that registration requirements as laid down by law (by the companies act) have been met. The declaration must be signed by the secretary or a director or a lawyer.
A statement signed by the directors stating that they have agreed to act as directors.
A statement of share capital- this statement gives the amount of capital that the company wishes to raise and its subdivision into shares.

-Once the above documents are ready, they are submitted by the promoters to the registrar of companies. On approval by the Registrar and on payment of a registration fee, a certificate of incorporation (certificate of registration) is issued

-The certificate of incorporation gives the company a separate legal entity.

Sources of capital

Shares; The main source of capital for any company is the sale of shares.

-A share is a unit of capital in a company e.g. if a company states that its capital is ksh.100,000 divided into equal shares of ksh.10 each.

-Each shareholder is entitled to the company’s profit proportionate to the number of shares he/she holds in the company.

Types of shares;

Ordinary shares
Preference shares

Ordinary shares;-Ordinary shares have the following rights:

Have voting rights
Have no fixed rate of dividends. The dividends on them vary according to the amounts of profit made
They have a claim to dividends after the preference shares
If the company is being liquidated, they are paid last after the preference shares

Preference shares;-They have the following characteristics;

Have a fixed rate of sharing profits(dividends)
Have a prior claim to dividends over the ordinary shares
Have no voting rights
Can be redeemable or irredeemable. Redeemable shares are the ones that can be bought back by the company at a future date while irredeemable ones are ones that cannot be bought back
Can be cumulative or non-cumulative. Cumulative shares are the ones that are entitled to dividends whether the company makes profit or not. This means if the company makes a loss or a profit which is not enough for dividends in a certain year, the dividends to cumulative shares are carried forward to the next year(s) when enough profit are made

-Non- cumulative shares are the ones whose dividends are not carried forward to the following year(s)

Debentures

This refers to loans from the public to a company or an acknowledgement of a debt by a company

They carry fixed rate of interest which is payable whether profit are made or not.

They are issued to the public in the same way as shares.

They can be redeemable or irredeemable.

Redeemable debentures are usually secured against the company’s assets in which case they termed as secured debentures or mortgaged debentures.

NB: Where no security is given, the debentures are called unsecured /naked debentures.

Loans from bank and other financial institutions;-A company can borrow long term or short term loans from banks and other money lending institutions such as Industrial and Commercial Development Corporation [I.C.D.C]

These loans are repayable with interest of the agreed rates.

Profits ploughed back;-A company may decide to set aside part of the profit made to be used for specified or general purposes instead of sharing out all the profit as dividends. This money is referred to as a reserve.
Bank overdraft;-A customer to a bank may make arrangements with the bank to be allowed to withdraw more money than he/she has in the account.
Leasing and renting of property.
Goods brought on credit.
Acquiring property through hire purchase.

TYPES OF COMPANIES

PRIVATE LIMITED COMPANY

Private limited company has the following characteristics;

Can be formed by a minimum of 2 and a maximum of 50 shareholders, excluding the employees,
Does not advertise its shares to the public, but sells them privately to specific people
Restricts transfer of shares i.e. a shareholder cannot sell his/her shares freely without the consent of other shareholders.
Can be managed by one or two directors. A big private company may however, require a board of directors
Can start business immediately after receiving the certificate of incorporation without necessarily having to wait for a certificate of trading.
It does not have an authorized minimum share capital figure.
Has a separate legal entity and can own property, enter into contracts, sue or be sued.
Has limited liability.
Has a perpetual existence.

Formation

-It must have a memorandum of association, article of association list of directors, declaration signed by a director or lawyer and certificate of incorporation

Advantages of private limited company

Formation: The Company can be formed more easily than a public company. The cost of information is less than that of a public company
Legal personality: A private company is a separate legal entity from its owners. Like a person, it can own property, sue or be Sued and enter into contacts
Limited liability: Shareholders have limited liability meaning that they are not responsible for the company’s debts beyond the amount due on the shares
Capital: They have access to a large pool of capital than sole proprietorship or a partnership. They can borrow money more easily from financial institutions because it owns assets which can be pledge as security
Management: A private company has a larger pool of professional managers than a sole proprietorship or a partnership. These managers bring in professional skills in their own areas which are of great advantage to a private company
Assured continuity of the business: Death, bankrupty or withdrawal of a shareholder does not affect the continuity of the company
Trading: Unlike a public company a private company can commence trading immediately upon receiving a registration certificate.

Disadvantages of a private company

Returns: A private company, unlike sole proprietorship or a partnership, must submit annual returns on prescribed forms to the registrar of companies immediately after the annual general meeting
Capital: A private company cannot invite the public to subscribe to its shares like a public limited company. It therefore limited access to a wide source of capital.
Share transfer: The law restricts the transfer of shares to its members/shareholders are not free to transfer their shares

II) PUBLIC LIMITED COMPANY;- Public limited companies have the following characteristics:

Can be formed by a minimum of 7(seven) shareholders and no set maximum.
Cannot start business before it is issued with a certificate of trading. This is issued after the certificate of incorporation and after the company has raised a minimum amount of capital
It’s managed by a board of directors.
The shares and debentures are freely transferable from one person to another.
It advertises its shares to the public/ invites the public to subscribe for/buy its shares and debentures.
Must publish their end of year accounts and balance sheets.
Must have an authorized minimum share capital figure.
Has a separate legal entity and can own property, enter into contracts, sue or be sued.
Has limited liability.
Has a perpetual existence.

Advantages of public limited company

Wide range of sources of capital :It has access to wide range of sources of capital especially through the sale of shares and debentures

-They can also borrow money from financial institutions in large sums and have good security to offer to the lenders.

Limited liability: Like private companies, public limited company’s shareholders have limited liability i.e. the shareholders are not liable for the company’s debts beyond the shareholders capital contribution.
Specialized management: PLC’S are able to hire qualified and experienced professional staff.
Wide choice of business opportunities: Due to large amount of capital a public company may be suitable for any type of investment
Share transferability: Shares are freely transferable from one person to another and affects neither the company’s capital nor its continuity.
Continuity: PLC has a continuous life as it is not affected by the shareholders death, insanity, bankruptcy or transfer of shares
Economies of scale: Their large size enables them to enjoy economies of scale operations. This leads to reduced costs of production which raises the levels of profit
Employee’s motivation: They have schemes which enable employees to be part owners of the company which encourages them to work harder in anticipation of higher dividends and growth in the value of the company’s shares.
Share of loss: Large membership and the fact that capital is divided into different classes’ means that the risk of loss is shared and spread.
Shareholders are safe guarded; Publicity of company accounts safeguard against frauds.

Disadvantages of public limited companies

High costs of formation: The process of registering a public company is expensive and lengthy. Some of the costs of information are legal costs, registration fees and taxes
Legal restrictions: A public company must comply with many legal requirements making its operations inflexible and rigid
Alienation of owners: Shareholders non-participation in management is a disadvantage to them
Lack of secrecy: The public limited companies are required by law to submit annual returns and accounts to the registrar of companies denying the company the benefit of keeping its affairs secret. They are also required to publish their end of year accounts and balance sheets.
Conflicts of interests: Directors may have personal interests that may conflict with those of the company. This may lead to mismanagement.
Decision making; Important decision are made by the directors and shareholders. The directors and shareholders meet after long periods which make decision making slow/delayed and expensive.
Diseconomies of scale: The large size and nature of business operations of public limited companies may result in high running/operation costs and inefficiency
Double taxation: There is double taxation since the company is fixed and dividends distributed to the shareholders are also taxed
Inflexibility: Public limited companies cannot easily change its nature of business in response to the changing circumstances in the market. All shareholders must be consulted and agree.

DISSOLUTION OF A COMPANY

The following are the circumstances that may lead to the dissolution of a company:

Failure to commence business within one year- If a company does not commence business within one year from the date of registration, it may be wound up by a court order on application of a member of the company.
Insolvency – when a company is not able to pay its debts, it can be declared insolvent and wound up.
Ultra- vires – this means a company is acting contrary to what is in its objective clause. In such a case, it may be wound up by a court order.
Amalgamation – two or more companies may join up to form one large company completely different from the original ones.
Court order – the court of law can order a company to wind up especially following complaints from creditors.
Decision by shareholders – the shareholders may decide to dissolve a company in a general meeting.
Accomplishment of purpose or expiry of period of operation – a company may be dissolved on accomplishment of its objects, or on expiry of period fixed for its existence.

THE ROLE OF STOCK EXCHANGE AS A MARKET FOR SECURITIES

DEFINATIONS

Stock: a group of shares in a public limited company
Stocks are formed when all the authorized shares in a particular category have been issued and fully paid for.
Stock exchange market: is a market where stocks from Quoted companies are bought and sold
Stock exchange markets enable share holders in public companies to sell their shares to other people, usually members of the public interested in buying them.
A Quoted Company: is a company that has been registered (listed) as a member of the stock exchange market.
Companies that are not quoted cannot have their shares traded in the stock exchange market.
Securities: this could either refer shares or documents used in support of share ownership.
Initial Public Offer (I. P. O): refers to situations in which a company has floated new shares for public subscription ( Has advertised new shares and has invited members of the public to buy them.
Secondary market: The market that deals in second hand shares i.e. the transfer of shares from one person or organization to another.

There is only one stock exchange market in Kenya i.e. The Nairobi Stock Exchange.

A person wishing to acquire shares will do so either at an IPO or in the secondary market. However, an investor cannot buy or sell stocks directly in the stock exchange market. They can only do so through stock brokers.

ROLES OF THE STOCK EXCHANGE MARKET

Facilitates buying of shares- it provides a conducive environment to investors who want to buy shares in different companies.
Facilitates selling of shares- it creates a market for those who wish to sell their shares.
Safeguarding investors’ interests- it monitors the performance of the already quoted companies and those found not meeting expectations are struck off. Companies who want to be quoted must also attain a certain standard of performance.
Provides useful information- it provides timely, accurate and reliable information to investors which enable them to make decisions on the investments to make. The information is passed on through mass media and stock brokers.
Assist companies to raise capital- it assists companies to raise capital by creating an environment through which companies issue new shares to members of the public in an IPO.
Creation of employment- it creates employment for those who facilitate the buying and selling of shares eg stock brokers, stock agents etc.
Raising revenue for the government- the government earns revenue by collecting fees and other levies/ dues from activities carried out in the stock exchange market.
Availing a variety of securities- it avails a variety of securities from which an investor can choose from. The market therefore satisfies needs of various investors eg investors who wish to buy from different companies can do so in the market.
Fixing of prices- the stock exchange market is in a position to determine the true market value of the securities through the forces of demand and supply. This is of great importance to both the buyer and the seller.
Measures a country’s economic progress- the performance of securities in the stock exchange market may be an indicator of a country’s economic progress e.g a constant rise in prices and volumes of securities traded within a given period of time would indicate that the country’s economy is positively growing.
Promotes the culture of saving- it provides investors with opportunities to channel their excess funds. Such people act as role models to other members of the society who may emulate them thereby promoting a saving culture.

PUBLIC CORPORATIONS (STATE CORPORATIONS)

These are organizations formed by and/or controlled by the government (the government has a controlling interest). This means that the government owns more than 50% shares in the corporation. Where the government has full ownership, the organization is known as a parastatal

Public corporations are formed to perform certain/specific functions on behalf of the government.
They are formed to provide essential services that are generally in the public interest, and that may require heavy initial capital investment which few private investors can afford
They are formed by the act of parliament.

Examples

Kenya Railways corporation- provides railway transport
Telkom Kenya-provides telecommunication services
Postal corporation of Kenya
Industrial and commercial Development corporation (ICDC)- financial and management services
Mumias and Chemelil sugar companies.
Kenya air ways- provide air transport services. Etc

Characteristics/features of public corporations

They are formed by the government under the existing laws i.e formed by an act of parliament eg education act
Initial capital is provided by the government.
They are jointly owned by the government and members of public/private investors.
They are set up to perform certain specific functions on behalf of the government
They are managed by a board of directors appointed by the government or appointed by the government and the joint owners.
They have an entity of their own and can own property, enter contracts, sue and be sued
They have limited liability
Some operate without a profit motive while others have a profit motive

Formation

-Some are formed by an act of parliament while others are formed under the existing laws.

-When formed by an act of parliament, the Act defines its status obligations and areas of operation. The Act outlines the following;

Proposed name of the corporation
Aims and objectives
Goods or services to be produced and provided
Location(Area of operation)
The appointment of top executives
The powers of the Board of directors
The ministry under which it will operate

Management

-The public corporations are managed by a board of directors appointed by the president or the relevant minister.

-The chairman and the board of directors are responsible for the implementation of the aims and objectives of the corporations.

-The chairman of the board of directors reports to the government (president) through the relevant minister.

-The managing director who is usually the secretary of the board of directors in the chief executive officer of the corporation

Sources of capital

–The initial capital is usually provided by the government as a vote of expenditure for the ministry concerned

-Those corporations jointly owned by the government and the public raise capital through the sale of shares

-financial institutions in form of loans

-Retained profits/profits ploughed back.

-Hire purchase.

Advantages of public corporations

Initial capital is readily available because it is provided by the government
Can afford to provide goods and services at low prices which would otherwise be expensive if they were left to the private sector.
Most of them produce goods and services in large quantities thereby reaping the benefits of large scale production
Some are monopolies. They hence enjoy the benefits of being a monopoly e.g. they do not have to incur costs advertising since there is no competition
They can be bailed out/assisted by the government when in financial problems
They have limited liability
Money for research and development can be made readily available by the government
Through corporations the government is able to remove foreign domination in the country
They can afford to hire qualified personnel.

Disadvantages of public corporations

They are managed by political appointees who may not have the necessary managerial know how.
When they make losses, they are assisted by the government and this could lead to higher taxation of individuals
Lack of competition due to monopoly leads to inefficiency and insensitivity to customers feelings.
Political interference may hamper efficiency in the achievement of set goals and objectives.
Decision making is slow and difficult because the organizations are large.
They may lack close supervision because of their large sizes.
There is embezzlement of large sums of money leading to loss of public funds
The government is forced to provide goods and services to its citizens in all parts of the country where at times its uneconomical to provide them because the costs of providing them may surpass the returns
Public funds are wasted by keeping poorly managed public corporations.
Diseconomies of scale apply in these business units because they are usually very large scale organizations e.g. decision making may take long.

Dissolution of public corporations

They can only be dissolved by the government due to;

Persistent loss making
Bankruptcy- where the corporation cannot pay its debts.
Change in the act of parliament that formed the corporation.
Mismanagement, resulting in poor management of the corporation.

TRENDS IN FORMS OF BUSINESS UNITS

Globalizations;

This refers to the sharing of worlds resources among all regions i.e where there are no boundaries in business transactions

Some companies referred to as multinationals, have branches in many parts of the world e.g coca-cola company

Globalization has been made possible and effective through the development and improvement of information and technology organization i.e

World website (internet); one can acquire and order for goods through the internet. This is referred to as Electronic Commerce (E- Commerce) and E- Banking.
Mobile phones technology has revolutionized ways of life and business and even remote areas have been opened up.

Business Amalgamations/combinations

This occurs when two independent business enterprises combine to form one large organization

Levels of combinations

Vertical combination; This is when businesses engaged in different but successive levels of production combine e.g. primary(extractive) level combines with secondary(manufacturing)level or secondary level combining with tertiary level.

Example; A company producing cotton (raw materials) combining with a textile industry.

Horizontal combination; This is where business enterprises of the same level combine e.g. secondary and secondary levels e.t.c

Types of Amalgamation/combination

Amalgamations whether vertical or horizontal can be achieved in these ways;

Holding companies

-A holding company is one that acquires 51 percent or more shares in one or more other companies.

-The various companies entering into such a combination are brought under a single control.

-These companies are controlled by the holding company and are called Subsidiaries.

-The subsidiary companies are however allowed to retain their original names and status, but the holding company appoints some members to be on the board of directors of these subsidiaries, so as to control their activities.

-Holding companies are usually financial institutions because they are able to buy controlling shares in subsidiary companies

Absorptions (takeovers)

This refers to a business taking over another business by buying all the assets of the other business which then ceases to exist.

Example; Kenya Breweries took over the castle company in Kenya

Mergers( Amalgamation);

This is where two or more business organizations combine and form one new business organizations.

-The merging companies cease to exist altogether.

Cartels

This is a group of related firms/ companies that agree to work together in order to control output, prices and markets of their products – O. P. E. C (organization of petroleum exporting countries) is an example.

Privatization; this is the process of transferring / selling state owned corporations to public limited companies or private investors. This is done by the Government selling their shareholding to members of the public. The main aim is to:
Improve efficiency
Generate revenue for the government.
Reduce government control
To break monopolistic practices
To reduce government expenditure on corporations that relies on government subsidy.
Check off system– this is a method of remitting money especially to SACCOS where the employer deducts the contribution from the source and submits it to the SACCO on behalf of the employee who is a member of the SACCO.
Burial Benevolent Funds (B. B. F); some SACCOS have started systems/ funds to assist their members financially in burials through creation of BBF.
Front Office Savings Account (FOSA); SACCOS have expanded their services to members by introducing FOSA. The account enables members to convinientlydeposit and withdraws money. A member may also be provided with an ATM card which enables him/her to withdraw money at various pesa points/ ATM’s.
Franchising ; this is where one business grants another the rights to manufacture, distribute or produce its branded products using the name of the business that has granted the rights eg General motors’ has been granted franchise to deal in Toyota, Isuzu and Nissan vehicles.
Trusts; This is where a group of Companies work together to reduce competition. Trusts may also be formed where a company buys more than 50% of shares in a competing company so as to reduce competition.
Performance contracts; Employees in state corporations are expected to sign performance contracts in order to improve their efficiency. Other private institutions are also adopting the same practice.

TOPIC 2

GOVERNMENT AND BUSINESS

BY THE END OF THE TOPIC, THE LEARNER SHOULD BE ABLE TO:

Explain reasons for government involvement in business.
Explain how the government gets involved in business.
Discuss the merits and demerits of government involvement in business.
Discuss the importance of consumer protection.

INTRODUCTION

Government involvement in business activities is one of the commercial duties it owes its citizens. It is the one that provides the necessary environment for investments to be undertaken by itself, or by the local and foreign investors. This, the government may do in various ways, these include;

Producing goods and services
Distributing goods and services
Advising producers and traders
Promoting trade and economic development.
Protecting consumers against exploitation by producers and traders.
As a consumer of goods and services.

Reasons for Government involvement in business

The following are the major reasons for the government’s involvement and participation in business activities;

To prevent exploitation of the public by private business persons especially in the provision of essential goods and services such as sugar, transport, communication etc. the Kenya Bureau of standards (KEBS) regulates the quality of goods consumed in Kenya.
To provide essential goods and services in areas where private individuals and organizations are unwilling to venture because of low profits/ high risks involved.
To provide essential goods and services which private organizations and individuals are unable to provide due to the large amount of initial capital required b e.g. generation of electricity, establishment of airlines etc.
To attract foreign investment by initiating major business projects.
To stimulate economic development in the country e.g. by providing social services.
To provide goods and services which are too sensitive to be left in the hands of the private sector e.g. provision of firearms.
To create employment opportunities by initiating projects such as generation of electricity.
To prevent foreign dominance of the economy by investing in areas where the locals are not able to.
To redistribute wealth where returns are very high.
To prevent establishment of monopolies.

METHODS OF GOVERNMENT INVOLVEMENT IN BUSINESS

The government gets involved in business activities through the following methods:

Regulation

This refers to Rules and restrictions the government requires business units to follow in their business activities. Through this method, the government ensures high quality goods and services and puts in control measures to protect consumers from exploitation. The government regulation measures include;

Licensing

A license is a document that shows that a business has been permitted by the government to operate. It is usually issued upon payment of a small fee.

Licensing is the process of issuing licenses to businesses. Some of the reasons why the government issues licenses include;

Regulating the number of businesses in a given place at any given time to avoid unhealthy competition.
To control the type of goods entering and leaving the country.
To ensure there are no illegal businesses.
To ensure that traders engage only in trade activities that they have been licensed for.
To ensure that those who engage in professional activities meet the requirements of the profession.
To raise revenue for the government.
Ensuring standards/ enforcing standards; The government regulates business activities by setting standards that businesses should and ensuring that the standards are adhered to. To achieve this purpose, the government has established bodies such as;
Kenya bureau of standards (KEBS) whose main responsibility is to set standards especially for the manufactured goods and see to it that the set standards are adhered to/ met. Goods that meet such standards are given a diamond mark of quality, to show that they are of good quality.
The ministry of public health to ensure that businesses meet certain standards as concerning facilities before such businesses can be allowed to operate. Such standards may include clean toilets, clean water and well aerated buildings.

Legislation; The Government may come up with rules and regulations (laws) that regulate business activities e.g. banning hawking in certain areas, matatus required to carry certain number of passengers e.t.c.
Training

The government takes keen interest in training and advising people in business about business management strategies and better ways of producing goods and services. The government offers these services through seminars and courses. This is mainly done by the Kenya Business Training Institute (K.B.T.I).

Reasons for government training include;

To expose business persons to modern developments in management.
Introduce modern technology and skills in management
Educate the business people on efficient methods of operating a business e.g., effective methods of advertising and keeping books of accounts.
Expose business people to problems/ challenges facing them and their possible solutions for example, problems of raising capital and identifying investment opportunities.
Impart proper business ethics e.g. good customer relations and honesty.
Creating awareness of the available profitable business opportunities in their environment.
Expose business people to government policies regarding business activities in the country.
Educate business people on how to use available resources to minimize costs and maximize profits.
Expose people to other opportunities that exist in the import and export market.
Trade promotion

This is a government initiated and supported policy to encourage local business people to enter into business. This is aimed at increasing the volume and variety of goods and services traded in.

Trade promotion is classified as either external trade promotion or internal trade promotion.

External trade promotion
The purpose of external trade promotion is to encourage local business people to enter into the export market.
It also intended to attract foreign investors into the country.
In Kenya, external trade promotion is done through the department of external trade in the ministry of trade and industry.
External trade promotion may also be done by Commercial attaches.

Commercial attaches are officers sent by the country’s government to work with the embassies in foreign countries as support staff in the field of commerce. Their main duty is to look at the interests of their home countries’ exports eg cash crops and manufactured goods.

Duties of commercial attaches

Explore and identify new markets for more export opportunities.
Research and analyze markets for exports from their home countries.
Keep statistics of products such as volumes, packaging size and method of manufacturing.
Attend meetings, seminars and workshops on trade patterns of the countries and keep data for new markets of exports.
Publish and advertise their country’s exports in business journals and magazines.
Select buyers, agents and distributors of the home country’s exports.
Inform traders in their home countries of the standards required for exports.
Assist sales missions from their home countries by organizing educational tours for them.
Organize visits to trade fairs and exhibitions for business people from their home country.
Make detailed reports on commercial activities that may help improve the exports of their countries.

To perform these duties, the commercial attaché needs to:

Keep information on prices paid for exports and terms of payments( conditions to be filled before the payment is made)
Be aware of the rules that govern payment in international trade.
Be aware of the working of the regional organizations that operate in developing countries such as the East African Community (E. A. C), Inter-Governmental Authority for Development (I.G.A.D), Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA), Economic Commission for Africa (E.C.A) and African Growth Opportunity Act (A.G.O.A).
Internal trade promotion

This is done by the government through the ministry of trade. The ministry carries out various activities

CONSUMER PROTECTION

Definition:

These are measures by either, the government, NGOs or consumers to avoid exploitation of consumers by business people.
It is the deliberate attempt to safeguard consumer against exploitation or malpractices in business.

Need For Consumer Protection

To protect them against sale of poor quality goods and services.
To protect them against sale of goods and services under unhygienic conditions and environment.

Protect them against sale of harmful goods and services.

Protect them against breach of contract.
To protect them against overpricing of goods services.
To protect them against hoarding of goods and services this may create artificial shortages.

Protect them against cheating through misleading or false advertisements.
To protect them against sale of underweight goods and inadequate services.

Protect them against sale of socially unacceptable goods and services. For example, pornographic materials.
Protect them against dangers that arise due to contamination of the environment.
Protect them from dangers that may arise from the use of unsafe building.

Protect them against sale of illegal goods and services.

METHODS OF CONSUMER PROTECTION

Government initiated methods

Enactment of laws that safeguard interest of consumer such as:

Kenya Bureau Of Standards (KEBS) Act to ensure standards of goods are maintained
Trade Description Act to guard against false or misleading advertisement.
Food And Drug Act to ensure that products are not harmful
Public Health Act to ensure safety and health standards are met.
Trade Licensing Act.
Weight And Measures Act to ensure goods are of the right weight.
Hire-Purchase Act to guard against unfair repossession of goods.

Encourage formation of consumer organizations to cater for the interests of consumers.

Encouraging businesses to conduct their affairs in a way that is not detrimental to the interest of consumer.

Consumer initiated methods

These are methods by the consumers to protect themselves from exploitation by business people by forming consumer associations.

Functions of consumer associations

Deals with complaints on defective goods.
Ensure regular supply of goods: no hoarding
Ensure correct weight and measures of commodities.
Ensuring availability of goods and services.
Educating members on their rights as consumers.
Ensure health and safety regulation are followed.

Limitations of consumer initiated methods

Lack of government support
Lack of capital to finance the associations
Ignorance of consumers on their rights.
Lack of initiative from consumers in checking trader’s performance.
Reluctance of many consumers to join these associations so that they may voice their complaints as a group.

Non-governmental Organisations (NGOs)

Involve in consumer protection by informing consumers on their rights e.g right to true advertisement.
Ensures standards are maintained by both producers and traders.

Emerging issues in business and government

Corruption – this has lowered profit in that most firms affected perform poorly.
Market liberalization – is the removal of protection policies and regulations so that the Kenyan market is open to all.
Privatization- is the conversion of public enterprises. Privatization has enhanced efficiency of enterprises to make profit.
Dumping – occurs when firms sell goods at lower prices overseas than in its home market. This affects local products by denying them market and capacity to survive and expand.
HIV/AIDS- the government is losing a lot of competent trained manpower through HIV/AIDS

T0PIC 4

COMMUNICATION

Meaning of communication

Communication is the transfer or conveyance of messages or information from one person to another.
Communication is the process of sending and receiving meaningful messages, information and ideas between two or more people located at different points in space.

Note: The space between the sender (s) and the receiver (s) maybe as narrow as when people are talking to each other or as wide as between the North Pole and the South Pole.

Effective communication is vital/important for business in that it serves the following purposes.

Importance of communication (purposes)

To give and obtain information

For an organization to run smoothly there should be proper flow of information within the business and also between the firm and outsiders e.g. the manager may inform members of staff about a planned meeting. Similarly the business may receive a letter of inquiry from a customer

To clarify issues and points

Through proper communication the organization is able to clarify confusing issues from within and without the firm for example in cases where there are many managers. It would be necessary to clarify the responsibilities of each manager.

To enhance public relations

Good/efficient communication enables the business to create a more positive image and a favorable reputation of itself to outsiders and overcome prejudices and negative attitudes that people may have against the business.

To start and influence Action

Proper communication enables the business to get new ideas make plans and ensure that they are implemented in the desired way.

Improving customer service; Good communication helps in reducing errors providing customers with desired feedback and assisting in handling inquiries more efficiently
Giving instructions; Through proper communication management is able to get work done by issuing instructions (procedures and orders)e.g. a supplier may be instructed when and where to deliver the goods ordered.
To give Reassurance; Information is needed to reassure people that their performance is good e.g. an employee may feel better is he/she is served with a “will done”memo or a “customer of the year” award.
Confirming arrangements; Through communication arrangements are confirmed for example confirmation of meetings conferences or details of transactions
Co-ordinating departments of the firm; Charges in one department are communicated to other departments that have a direct bearing to those changes e.g. when sales increase the sales department informs the production department so as to increase production proportionality
Modifying behavior of persons within or outside the organization; Through effective communication persons are trained and counseled and as a result their behavior knowledge and attitudes change

Communication process

Communication is a process that involves interchange of information and ideas between two or more people. Communication therefore is a circular process i.e communication may lead to some reaction which in turn may generate further communication

or feedback. This flow can be illustrated as below:

(2) Message

(3) Receiver

Message 3

Receivercdddd

Sender

Sender

(4) Feed back

Feedback

Sender –this is the person who writes, speaks or sends signs (symbols or signals) and is the source of the information.
Receiver – this is the person to whom the information or the message is sent.
Message – this is the information that is transmitted from the sender to the receiver. It may be spoken, written or in the form of symbols.
Feed back – this is the response to the sender’s message. A message is said to have been understood if the receiver provides the desired feedback.

Lines of communication

Communication can be classified according to either the levels of the communicating parties or according to the nature of the message.

According to levels-This can either be:

I) Vertical
ii) Horizontal

iii) Diagonal

Vertical communication

This is where messages are passed between a senior and her/his juniors in the same organizations

Vertical communication can be divided into two parts

–Downward communication

-Upward communication

-Downward communication-This is a communication process which starts from the top manager to her/his juniors. This can be informed of:

Training juniors
Evaluating performance
Delegating duties
Solving the problems facing workers
Inspiring and motivating the juniors(giving rewards)

-Upward communication-This is a communication process that starts from the juniors to the seniors and maybe in the form of:

Submitting reports
Giving suggestion
Submitting complaints a grievances
Making inquiries

ii) Horizontal communication (lateral communication)

This is communication between people of the same level (rank) in the same organization e.g. departmental heads in an organization may communicate to achieve the following:

Co-ordination and harmonization of different activities.
To create teamwork within the department.
To exchange ideas in order to develop human resources.
To reduce goal blindness among different departments.
To create a sense of belonging among department heads thus acting as a motivating factor.

One of the major characteristics of this type of communication is that there are less inhibitions. The people involved are more open and free with each other than in the case of people with different ranks.

iii) Diagonal communication

This is communication between people of different levels in different departments or different organizations e.g. an accounts clerk may communicate with a sales manager of the same organization or of different organizations. Diagonal communication enhances team work.

b) According to nature of message

This can either be;

i) Formal communication
ii) Informal communication

Formal communication

This is the passing of messages or information using the approved and recognized way in an organization such as official meetings, memos and letters. This means that messages are passed to the right people following the right channels and in the right form.

Formal communication is also known as official communication as it is the passing of information meant for office purposes.

Formal systems of communication are consciously and deliberately established.

Informal communication

This is communication without following either the right channels or in the right form i.e. takes place when information is passed unofficially. It is usually used when passing information between friends and relatives hence it lacks the formality.

Informal communication may also take the form of gossips and rumor-mongering.

Informal communication usually suppliments formal communication as is based on social relations within the organization.

Note: Both formal and informal communication is necessary for effective communication in an organization.

Essentials of Effective communication

For communication to be effective it must be originated produced transmitted received understood and acted upon. The following are the main essentials to effective communications.

i) The sender/communicator

This is the person from whom the message originates. He/she encodes the message i.e. puts the message in the communicative form.

ii) Message

This is the information to be sent. It is the subject matter of communication and may contain words, symbols, pictures or some other forms which will make the receiver understand the message

iii) Encoding; This is the process of expressing ones ideas in form of words, symbols, gestures and signs to convey a message

iv)Medium/channel; This refers to the means used in communicating. This could be in the form of letters, telephones and emails among others.

v)The receiver; This is the person for whom the message is intended. The receiver decodes the message for proper understanding.

vi)Decoding; This is the process of interpreting or translating the encoded message to derive the meaning from the message

vii) Feed-back; This refers to the reaction of the receiver of the message. This maybe a reply /response which the receiver sends back to the sender.

The above can be represented in a diagram as shown below;

Receiver (5)

Channel (4)

Encoding (3)

Message (2)

Decoding (6)

Sender (1)

Feedback (7)

FORMS AND MEANS OF COMMUNICATION

Forms; These are channels or ways of passing on messages. The four main forms are;

i) Oral communication
ii) Written communication

iii )Audio –visual communication

iv) Visual communication

Means; This is the device used to pass on information e.g. messages, letters, telephones e.t.c

Oral communication

This is where information is conveyed by talking (word of mouth)

It is also known as verbal communication

Means of communication

i) Face-to-face conversation

This involves two or more people talking to each other. The parties are usually near each other as much as possible to ensure effective communication.

It is suitable where subject matter of discussion require convincing persuasion and immediate feed-back.

It may be used during meetings, interviews, seminars, private discussions, classrooms e.t.c

It is the most common means of oral communication

Advantages of face-to-face communication

Provides for immediate feedback
Has personal appeal
Body language can be easily expressed
One can persuade or convince another
It is the simplest communication to use
It is direct i.e. does not pass through intermediaries
Convenient for confidential messages.

Disadvantages of face-to-face communication

No record for future reference
Can be time consuming
Messages can be distracted
Not suitable when people are far apart
Unsuitable for the dumb and deaf

ii)Telephone

This form of communication is commonly used in offices and homes. It is useful in sending messages quickly over short and long distances.

It is however not suitable for sending;

Confidential messages
Long and detailed reports, charts and graphs
Messages that would require reference or evidence

In Kenya telephone services are mainly provided by Telkom Kenya Limited. The subscriber is required to purchase the telephone equipment from the post office or other authorized dealers before installation.

Installation is done on application by the subscriber (applicant).He/she pays the installation fee in addition; the subscriber is sent a monthly bill with the charges for all the calls made during the month.

The charges for calls depend on the time spent time of the day of the week and distance of the recipient from the caller e.g. it is cheaper to call at night than during the day. It is also cheap to make calls during public holidays and weekends than on weekdays.

There are also mobile phones which have no physical line connection to exchange and may be fixed to a vehicle or carried in pockets. In Kenya these services are provided by safaricom, Airtel, orange and Yu mobile communications.

Advantages of Telephones

Relatively fast
Has personal appeal
Provides for immediate feedback
One can persuade or convince another
Suitable for long distance communication

Disadvantages of Telephone

Can be expensive especially over long distances
No record for future reference
Lacks confidentiality
Not convenient for dumb and deaf
Can be time consuming

Reasons why mobile phones have become popular

They are portable and can be conveniently carried around.
It is not very expensive especially when making local calls.
Relatively cheap to acquire.
Some mobile phones can record conversations / calls thereby acting as evidence.
Can be used to send short text messages (sms)
Can be used anywhere since they are portable.

iii) Radio calls

This involves transmitting information by use of radio waves i.e. without connecting wires between the sender and the receiver

The device used is called a radio telephone. It is commonly used in remote areas where normal telephone services are lacking or where telephone services are available but cannot be conveniently used e.g. policemen on patrol in different parts of a town

Radio transmission is a one way communication system i.e. only one person can speak at a time. It is therefore necessary for the speaker to say’over’ to signal the recipient that the communication is through so that the recipient can start talking. To end the conversation, the speaker says ‘over and out’

The radio calls are commonly used by the police, game rangers, researchers, foresters, ship owners and hotels situated in remote areas. They are also used for sending urgent messages such as calling for an ambulance and fire brigade

Note; Radio calls are not confidential since they use sound frequencies that can be tapped by any radio equipment that is tuned to that frequency

Advantages of Radio calls

Relatively fast
Has immediate feedback
Has personal appeal
Provide room for one to persuade and convince another
Suitable for remote areas
Convenient for long distances

Disadvantages of Radio calls

No record for future reference
Lacks confidentiality
Messages are sent one way at a time
Can be expensive
Cannot be used by dumb and deaf
Can be time consuming.

iv) Paging

This is a means of communication used to locate staff or employers who are scattered in an organization or who are outside and need to be located urgently

When within the organization portable receivers, lighted signals, bells, loudspeakers etc are used

When outside the organization employees are contacted using portable receivers (pocket-size) used to send messages through sms (short message services)

The paying system can only be used within a certain radius. When using a portable receiver, the caller will contact the subscriber by calling the post office which will then activate the pager.

The subscriber is then informed to contact the originator of the message.

Paging is mostly used in emergency cases

v)Radio

Usually messages intended for a wide audience can be transmitted through a radio more quickly and economically than by using other forms of communication.;`

Radio is used for different reasons apart from advertising e.g for formal notices, and venue for activities

Advantages of oral/verbal communication

Very effective method of communication since the recipient can be persuaded/convinced
It is relatively faster method of communication
The sender can get immediate feedback
It indicates some sence of regard hence more appealing.

Disadvantages of oral/verbal communication

Has no records for future reference
Is an expensive method especially if the two parties are far apart
Is not good for confidential messages
It is not suitable for confidential messages
It may be time wasting especially where one needs to be convinced

Written Communication

This involves transmission of messages through writing. It is the most formal way of communication because the information is in recorded form and can be used for reference

Means of written communication

(i)Letters

Letters are the most commonly used means of communication.

There are two categories of letters;

a)Formal letters

b) Informal letters
a) Formal letters; These include business letters and official letters.

Business letters are written to pass messages and information from businessmen to customers and vice versa e.g. letters of inquiry and acknowledgement notes.

It can also be used between employees and employers in an organization e.g. a complimentary note.

Official letters are letters between people in authority and others that touch on the activities of the organization e.g. an application letter for an advertised vacancy in an organization.

Formal letters have a salutation clause which usually starts with “Dear Madam “or “Dear Sir”. It also bears the addresses of both the sender and the recipient, a subject heading and a complimentary clause ending with “Yours faithfully”.

b) Informal Letters; these are letters between friends and relatives

They are also known as Personal letters

ii) Telegrams

This is a means of communication provided by the post office. The sender obtains the telegram form fro the post office and fills the message on it in capital letters and hand it over to the post office employees at the counter. Alternatively the sender may use a telephone to read the message to the post office. The post office then transmits the message to the recipient post office.

The charges of a telegram are based on the number of words used, the more the words used the higher the charges. However there is a standing charge.

Telegrams are used for sending urgent messages.

Note; Due to changing technology telegrams have lost popularity. Short messages can now be sent by cell phones (mobile phones) using the short messages services (sms)

iii) Telex

This is a means of communication used to send short or detailed messages quickly by use of a teleprinter. The service is provided by the post office on application.

A message is sent by use of two teleprinters one on the senders end and another on the recipients end. When sending information through a teleprinter which is a form of electric typewriter producing different electric signals, its keys are pressed and automatically the message is printed at the recipient’s machine.

Telex saves time for both the sender and recipient as the messages are brief precise and received immediately. However it’s an expensive means of communication

iv) Facsimile (Fax)

This involves transmission of information through a fax machine. Both the sender and the receiver must have a fax machine. These machines are connected using telephone lines

Fax is used to transmit printed messages such as letters, maps, diagrams and photographs. To send the information, one dials a fax number of the required destination and then the document is fed into the sender’s machine. The receiving machine reproduces the document immediately. It is used for long distance photocopying service.

v) Memorandum (Memo)

This is printed information for internal messages within an organization. It is normally used to pass information between departments or offices in an organization.

Memoranda have no salutation or complimentary clause. They are suitable for informing the officers within an organization of matters related to the firm.

A memo is pinned on the notice board of an organization if it is meant for everybody otherwise passed to the relevant staff.

vi) Notice

This is a written communication used to inform a group or the public about past current or future events. It is usually brief and to the point. It can be placed on walls, in public places, on trees, in newspapers or on notice boards

viii) Reports

These are statements/within records of findings recommendations and conclusion of an investigation/research. A report is usually sent to someone who has asked for it for a specific purpose.

viii) Circulars

These are many copies of a single letter addressed to very many people when the message intended for each is the same.

ix) Agenda

This is an outline of the items to be discussed in a meeting. It is usually contained in a notice to a meeting sent in advance to all the participants of the meeting. The notice of the meeting contains;

The date of the meeting
The venue of the meeting
Time of the meeting
Items to be discussed

x) Minutes

These are records of the proceedings of a meeting. Keeping minutes of certain meetings is a legal requirements e.g companies

Keeping minutes for other meetings are for management purposes to ensure that decisions made at the meetings are implemented

Advantages of written communication

It can be retained for future reference
Some like letters are relatively cheap(can produce many copies)
It is suitable for confidential messages
Allows for inclusion of fine details
It is not prone to distortion of messages
Can be used as evidence
Can be addressed to many people.

Disadvantages of written communication

It lacks personal appeal
It takes time to prepare and reach the recipient
Suitable for the literate only
Immediate feedback may not be possible
Does not offer room for persuasion and convincing
It may be expensive because it involves a lot of paperwork and time.
Not suitable if the sender and the receiver do not share a common language.

3) Visual Communication

This is the process of passing information by use of diagrams, drawings pictures, signs, and gestures e.t.c

Photographs

A photograph is an image (visual representation of an object as it appeared at the time when the photograph was taken

Photographs are self-explanatory and may not be accompanied by any narration or explanation. The recipient is able to get the message at a glance.

b) Signs

Refer to marks, symbols, drawings or gestures whose purpose is to inform the public about such things as directions, distances, dangers and ideas.

Examples; road signs, traffic lights and danger signs on electricity poles

This means of communication can only be effective if the meaning of the sign used is understood.

Graphs; These are used to show and illustrate statistical information

Charts; These are diagrams which show or illustrate the flow of an idea e.g. an organization chart illustrates the whole organization structure indicating the chain of command

Advantages of visual communication

It can be used to pass confidential information

The information may be obtained at once

Disadvantages of visual communication

Can only be used by people who can see
The information may be wrongly interpreted
It may be an expensive method of communication
Cannot be used for long distances

4) Audio-Visual communication

This is a form of communication in which messages are sent through sounds and signs .

This form of communication ensures that the receiver gets the message instantly.

It is suitable where both the sender and the receiver know the meaning of specific sounds and signs

Means of Audio-visual communication

Television (TV); This is a device that transmits information inform of a series of images on a screen accompanied by sound. It is a very effective method of communication since it combines the advantages of image and sound

A television can be a very suitable means of sending urgent messages especially when it gives live coverage of events.

Siren; This is a device used to produce a loud shrill sound accompanied by a flashing light. It is commonly used by the police, ambulances, and the fire brigade and security firms to alert the public of the danger involved e.g. the ambulance siren conveys the message that somebody is seriously sick and therefore other motorists should give way.

Advantages of Audio-visual communication

It reaches many people
It is more appealing than other means of communication
Reinforces verbal communication
May have a lasting effect on the receiver
Suitable where receivers are illiterate.

Disadvantages of Audio-visual communication

It is suitable to those people who can interpret the messages correctly
It is not suitable for confidential messages
Preparation may take long.

5) Audio Communication

This is when the message is transmitted through sounds. Examples include

A whistle; This is a device which is blown to produce a sharp shrill sound to alert or warn the public or employees in an institution. It is normally used by security guards when there is danger. In some organization, a whistle is used to announce change in shifts
Horn; This is also an instrument that is used to produce sound which passes different information depending on the way it is blown.

Other methods of audio communication include drums, alarms, and bells among others

Advantages of Audio communication

Is a faster method of communication
It can reach several people at once
The message is received instantly

Disadvantages of Audio communication

The message may be interpreted wrongly
It can only be used within a certain radius at a time
It distracts people’s attention

FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN CHOOSING MEANS OF COMMUNICATION

Speed; Speed is an important factor when the message is urgent. In such a case telex, fax, telephone, telegram or e-mail would be the most suitable means of communication. Otherwise ordinary mail would be used
Cost; The cost incurred in using a means of communication vary from one means to another e.g. it is cheaper to send messages by ordinary mail than by telegram or telex
Confidentiality; Some messages are quite confidential and are intended for certain person only. Where confidential messages are involved, appropriate means should be used e.g. registered mail or internal memo enclosed in an envelope
Distance; The geographical gap between the sender and recipient is very important in determining the means of communication to be used. Some means are suitable for long distances while others are not.Paging and sirens are suitable for short distances. For long distances, fax letters, telephone.g,e-mail may be appropriate
Evidence, Some means of communication do not provide record of the message communicated while others do. All means of written communication provide evidence of messages communicated.
Reliability; This is the assurance (certainty) that the message will reach the intended person at the right time in the right form. Face-to-face communication is more reliable than other forms of communication because one can ask for clearly and get answers immediately. For some written information, courier service may be preferred
Accuracy; This refers to the exactness of the message communicated as intended by the sender. Written messages are generally more accurate than other means of communication.
Desired impression; The impression created upon the recipient of a message is very important e.g. a telegram or speed post mail will carry some sence of urgency, registered mail will create an impression of confidentiality while use of colourful and attractive letterheads would convey a good image of the business.
Availability; One may want to telephone, for example, but the services are not there so the person would be forced to use alternative means e.g. letters or radio call.

BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

Communication is said to be complete only when the recipient gets the message the way the sender intends it to be. When information is not received the way it was intended then it has been distorted. Distortion of a message is brought about by some communication barriers which may exists in the path of the message between the sender and the recipient. Some of these barriers are;

Language used; the language used by the sender should be known (understood) by the recipient so that communication can take place
Poor Listening; the effectiveness of communication will depend on the willingness of the recipient to listen keenly .listening require careful attention and concentration. It may however be the task of the sender of the message to attempt to gain the attention of the listener. Through his/her choice of words and expression among others.
Negative Attitude; Attitude refers to the feelings of the communicating parties towards each other. It is important that there exists a mutual feeling of trust and respect between the parties concerned in order to avoid bias .If there is mistrust and prejudice then there may be deliberate or unintentional misunderstanding of the message involved.
Poor Timing ; poor timing leads to breakdown in communication , therefore for effective communication to take place the message must be sent and received at an appropriate time, eg a message sent when one is in a hurry may not be properly received or delivered
Wrong medium ; the medium used to communicate must be appropriate for the message being conveyed otherwise there may breakdown in communication eg one may not convey a confidential message over the telephone effectively
Prejudgment ; our understanding of the message is often conditional by our earlier experiences and knowledge this may make one individual draw premature conclusion eg a student who always fail in a subject and this time round has improve may be failed by the teacher because he has always failed in the past .
Ambiguities it occurs when the sender express in a manner which leads to wrong interpretation. When the rec eiver interprets the message differently it automatically leads to communication breakdown.
Emotional responses; emotional responses such as those resulting from hunger or excitement may lead to distortion of message.
Unclear System within the organization ; if the channel of passing information in an organization are not clear then the message will not get to the right people for whom the messages intended
Noise it refers to any disturbing sounds which interfere with concentration or listening ability of the recipient of the message the presence of noise may make it impossible for any message to be received in the right way.
Unfamiliar Non verbal signals; lack of understanding of non verbal sign may be a barrier to effective communication.

SERVICE THAT FACILITATE COMMUNICATION

Services that facilitate communication include;

Mailing services
Telephone services
Broadcasting services

Mailing services

This refers to handling of letters and parcels. They are offered by organizations such as postal corporation of Kenya (P.C.K) securicorl courier and Document handling Limited (D.H.L)

Some of the services offered by the postal corporation include;

Speed post; This is service offered by the post office to send correspondence and parcels to a destination in the shortest time possible. The post office uses the quickest means of transport available to deliver the mail.

The sender pays the normal postage fee plus a fee for special service. An example of such a service is Expedited Mail Service(EMS) speed post

Ordinary Mail

These include surface mail and air mail.

Surface Mail; These include letters and parcels delivered by road, rail, water and hand.

Air Mail; This consists of letters and light parcels delivered by air.

Express Mail;

An express mail is/must be presented at the post office counter by the sender and the envelope clearly addressed and a label with the word “express” affixed. Normal postage plus an extra fee (commission) is charged

The mail is delivered to the receivers nearest post office from where the post office makes arrangements to deliver the mail to the receiver within the shortest time possible.

NOTE: For speed post special arrangements to deliver the mail start at the sender’s post office whereas express mail, the arrangements start at the addressers post office.

Poste Restante;This is a service offered by the post office to travelers who may wish to receive correspondence right away from their post office box. The addressee has to inform those who may wish to correspond with him/her of the nearest post office he is likely to use at a particular time

Under this arrangement when addressing the letter, the words poste Restante must be written on the envelope clearly. The addressee must identify himself/herself when collecting the correspondence from the post office.

There is no additional charge made apart from normal postage charges. This service can only be offered for three months in the same town

Registered Mail;

This service is offered by the post office for sending articles of value for which security handling is required. A registration fee and a commission is paid. The commission depends on the weight of the article and the nature of registration. The sender is required to draw a horizontal and a vertical line across the faces of the envelope.

A certificate of registration is given to the sender. In case of loss,the sender may be paid compensation on production of the certificate of registration.

A green card is sent to the recipient. The card bears his name and the post office at which the mail was registered. The recipient will be required to identify himself before being allowed to posses the mail.

Items that may be registered include jewels, certificate, land title deeds e.t.c.

Business Reply Service; This is a service offered by the post office to business firms on request. The firm pays some amount to the post office and an account is then opened from which posted charges are deducted.

The service is useful/more common with firms which would like to encourage their customers to reply their letters. Customers are issued with reply card envelopes (or envelopes marked ‘postage paid’)

They can send letters to the business by using these envelopes/the card. The customers then place the card/envelope in the post box and the firms post office branch will deduct postage charges from the lump some amount.

Courier Services

These are services where a service provider receives transports and delivers parcels or important documents to destinations specified by customers in return for payment of fees or charges.

Examples; Akamba bus service, Securicor courier services e.t.c

ii)Telephone services

Landline/fixed line services
Cellular (mobile)phone services
Land(Fixed)line services

Telkom Kenya, through the post office, provides telephone services which offer direct contact between people who are far apart. It makes conversation between people at any distance possible, as long as there are transmission facilities between them. Urgent matters can be discussed and consultations can take place so that instant decision or actions are taken. The telephone assists organizations to establish a fast and convenient machinery for its internal and external communication network.

Cellular(mobile)phone services

These are hand held telephones with digital links that use radio waves. They are sometimes called cell-phones since they use power stored in a dry cell

In Kenya mobile phone services are provided by safaricom Ltd.(a subsidiary of Telkom Kenya)and Airtel communications Ltd(formally Kencel Communication Ltd)which is a joint venture between a French company and a Kenyan company, yu mobile services and Orange mobile services . This sector therefore greatly benefits from foreign investment to improve services.

The use of this service is popular. Apart from the provision of telecommunication service, cell phones have different attractive features or services such as short messages service (sms) whereby a caller can send a written message. Recent models of mobile phones enable the user to access the internet and send e-mail messages

Advantages

They are portable
Written messages can be transmitted easily and cheaply through the short message service(sms)
Enables both local and international communication.
The cost of acquiring the equipment is relatively affordable
Direct feedback is possible
Has memory for storing written messages
Has got e-mail capability

Disadvantages

Some kinds of mobile phones are expensive to buy
Maintenance expenses of a mobile phone are high. They are also susceptible to damage and repair can be very costly
Users are greatly inconvenienced in case there is no network coverage
A special facility where the callers identity is known(displayed on screen)can be abused where recipient does not wish to answer the call
Mobile phones are a security problem. They are easy targets for thieves
There is a danger of the radio active rays or emissions negatively affecting the users health, if such emissions are not adequately controlled

iii) Broadcasting services

Communication commission of Kenya is a regulatory body that receives applications and issues licences for radio and television broadcasting stations.

Radio stations

Radio broadcasting is a very important mode of giving news and information to people in the whole world.

The liberalization of the communications sector in Kenya in 1999, Kenya has witnessed a mushrooming of F.m Stations which are owned by private sector operators e.g. Kiss Radio, Easy fm,Classic fm,Family fm,Kameme e.t.c

They have helped to spread news and information countrywide. Before liberalization, Kenya Broadcasting corperation (KBC) radio was operating as a state owned monopoly.

Television Stations

Television broadcasting (telecasting) does not reach as wide an audience as radio broadcasting in Kenya. It however serves the same purpose of relaying news and information to Kenyans. Both radio and television stations are widely used for advertising purposes.

The T.V subsector has been liberalized since 1999 and a number of privately owned stations have emerged e.g Kenya Television Network (KTN) Nation Television, Family T.V etc. Prior to that time KBC television was in operation as a state owned monopoly.

Other services that facilitate communication

Telex
Facsimile
Paging
E-mail

Current trends and Emerging issues in communication

With the advancement of information technology (I.T) there has been a lot of revolution in communication.

The following are some of the current trends and emerging issues in communication;

Telephone Bureaux(Bureaus)

These are privately owned kiosks where telephone services are sold. The owner of the kiosk must get authority from the service provider in order to run the bureau. The individual wishing to use the services of the bureau makes payments to the owner of the service. Other services offered by the bureau include selling of scratch cards for mobile telephones and credit cards for landline telephone services.

Mobile phones (cell phones)

These are hand held telephones with digital links that use radio waves. They have become an important business and social tool. This is because most people and traders want some flexibility to be able to communicate whenever they are.

Other reasons that have led to the popularity of cell phones include:

Pre paid services which enable the owners to control communication costs.
Most cellular phones now allow the owners to browse the internet, check and send mail. This allows business people to communicate research and even place orders.
Cellular phones have short message services (sms) which enables the owners to send written messages.
E- mail ( Electronic Mail)

This is a service provided through the internet for sending messages.

It is similar to sending a letter through the postal system only that it is done electronically.

-Messages can be sent to anyone on the network, anywhere in the world. For this to take place, computers have to be connected to each other to form a network.

-To communicate, one is required to have an email address e.g raeform2 @ yahoo.com. Messages arrive at the e – mail address immediately they are sent.

-It is only the addressee of the message who can retrieve the message since a password is required to access the mailbox.

-E – mail can also be used to send documents and photographs like certificates by scanning and attaching.

– More and more businesses are using e- Mail to communicate with other businesses, their customers and suppliers.

* QUESTION: OUTLINE THE ADVANTAGES OF USING E- MAIL AS A MEANS OF COMMUNICATION.

iv) Internet

The internet links computers all over the world. Written and oral information is transmitted on the internet through the use of telephone wires, fibre- optic cables and wireless devices.

The internet has changed the way people communicate in the following ways;

Increased use of electronic mail (e-mail)
Quick access to information from all over the world.
Development of home offices and remote offices.
Use of teleconferencing and video conferencing.
Development of e-commerce.
Move towards a paperless office

The future office will rely largely on computers. Most of the communication will be done through computers. This may result in less use of paper, hence the use of the term “the paperless office”.

Vi ) Decline in the use of postal services

Decline in the use of postal services is a result of the impact of the internet. E-mail has become a popular and preferred mode of communication since it is fast and cheap. However, ordinary mail/ use of postal services may not be completely phased out since the government, businesses and people do not regard an e-mail as a binding or formal communication.

Vii) Transformation of language

The language used to pass and receive messages has evolved through time.e.g the youth have adopted the use of “sheng” in exchanging messages. such language is largely understood by its youthful users. There is also the use of cell phones to send short text messages; which are highly abbreviated and may use slang whose meaning is only known to the users e.g ‘av a gr8 day’.

COMMUNICATION REVESION QUESTIONS

Define the term communication

-Communication is the process by which information is passed from one person or place to another.

Outline the role played by communication in any given organization

It is used to give instructions on what should be done at work and during work.
It enhances good relations among workers thereby promoting and enhancing their efficiency.
Through communication most organizations have been able to improve their image, for example through advertising.
It used to improve the relationship between the organization and the customer or clients.
For co-ordinating purposes, communication is used to ensure all departments work in harmony.
The feedback got from the clients or customers helps to improve an organization’s reliability and quality of goods and services offered.
Communication is used as a tool for management.
Good decisions are made as communication helps one understand all the necessary matters.

Briefly explain the following levels of communication

(a) Vertical communication

Involves the flow of information either downwards or upwards, for example, from a senior employee to a junior employee

(b) Horizontal communication

Is also referred to as lateral communication which is passing of information between people of the same rank or status, for example from one departmental manager to another departmental manager

(c) Diagonal communication

Is communication of different people in different levels of management or departments for example a receptionist communicating to a production manager.

Distinguish between formal and informal communication

Formal communication is official and documented and follows certain rules for example a worker writing an official letter to an organization’s seniors. Informal communication does not conform to any time, for example communicating to friends and relatives.

State the essential elements in communication.

The sender who is the source of the information being communicated
The receiver(or recipient) of information
The message being communicated
The channel (or medium) through which the message is passed on
Feedback which is the response or reaction of the recipient.

Highlight the various types of verbal communication

Face-to-face communication
Telephone conversation
Radio calls conversation.

State the advantages and disadvantages of verbal communication

Advantages

A large number of people can receive the information at once for example when addressing in a meeting.
There is immediate feedback
Clarification can be made easily and immediately
This is personal appeal
It can be very convenient and persuasive
It is fast since the intended information reaches the recipient immediately.

Disadvantages

It is not easy to know if the message or information has been received particularly if the receivers are many
It is prone to outside interference due to noise and other forms of disruptions
In case of incorrect pronunciation of words, there could be distortion of the information
There is no record for future reference.
The method is not effective for recipients with learning problems.
Can take a lot of time to pass intended information.

Outline the various barriers to effective communication

Noise may hinder effective communication
The emotional state of both the sender and the recipient
Use of the wrong channel to communicate
Breakdown of a channel used to communicate
Illiteracy of the recipient particularly for written communication.
The attitude of the recipient towards the sender and the information being communicated
Use of difficult vocabulary or words by the sender
Lack of concentration on the part of the recipient may affect communication
Poor timing by the sender.

Highlight reasons that would make an organization use cell phones for communication within and outside the organization.

One gets immediate feedback
It is fast and can be used to send urgent messages
There is personal appeal
The sender has a great opportunity to convince and persuade the recipient.
It is not very expensive particularly for making calls for a short duration of time
It can be used even when both the sender and the recipient are far apart

State the various types of written communication.

Written
Memorandum(memos)
Reports
Notices
Telegrams
Circulars
Minutes

State the reasons why an organization would use written communication instead of verbal communication.

Written communication provides evidence which may not be there in verbal communication
Written information can be stored for future reference unlike verbal which cannot be stored and depends on the recipients memory
It is not prone to distortions and therefore more accurate than verbal communication
Written communication can be in form of diagrams, illustration and maps which is not possible for verbal communication
Some written communication such as letters would be cheaper and time saving than verbal communication, for example making long telephone calls.
Written communication can be used for confidential messages, for example registered mails.

State the disadvantages of written communication

Written is not very persuasive or convincing
There is no personal touch
It can only be used by literate
It can be slow where letters take time to reach the recipient
It takes time to get a feedback from the recipient
Messages cannot be enhanced by gestures, that is, body language or face expressions
It can be expense to file all the written communication

Outline the various means of visual communication

Charts
Photographs
Gestures, which may include signs and symbols
Slides

State the advantages and disadvantages of audio-visual of communication

Advantages

Information is more attractive and appealing
Can reach many people at once
It can be used even for those who cannot read and write
Immediate feedback is received from the way the recipient behave
Can be entertaining

Disadvantages

Can be misinterpreted, for example if the receiver does not understand the signs or gesture
Not suitable for passing confidential information
It is not possible for the recipient to give a feedback
Gesture and signs are only suitable to those who can understand them
The initial cost of preparing these forms of communication may be high for the sender
It may take a lot of time to prepare these forms of communication

Outline the various service that facilitate communication

Registered mail, for sending valuable or confidential information.
Speed post services offered by the post office to send letters parcels using the quickest means possible
Poste restante, usually used by those without postal addresses
Business reply service which enables customers and clients to reply to a business without having to pay for postage stamps
Broadcasting services through various radio stations
Print media such as the various newspapers, magazines and journals
Internet services which connect one to the world wide website
Telephone services

State the various trends in communication

Mobile or cell phone use
Internet which uses inter linked computers to the world wide website
Fax, which can be used to send written messages very fast
Information and telephone bureaus where one can make local and international calls
Move towards a paperless office.
Transformation of language.

Highlight the factors to be considered when choosing a means of communication.

The cost because some are more expensive than others
Availability of the means
Reliability or assurance that the message will reach the recipient
The distance between the sender and the recipient.
The literacy level of both the receiver and the recipient
The confidential nature of the information being sent
The urgency of the message
If there is need for evidence or need for future reference
The desired impact of the means upon the recipient.

Advice Mary Wakio why she should not use telex to communicate to her friends

Her friends may be illiterate and may be unable to read the message received
Her friends may not have a receiving machine and will be unable to get the information
It can be expensive to use as the sender pays a subscription fee and rental fee while he and the recipient pays for the sent message
It can be expensive to buy the teleprinters used in receiving and sending information
Telex may only send written messages but cannot be used to send maps, diagrams and charts

State circumstances when sign language can be the most appropriate form of communication

When communicating to someone who has a hearing problem
If one wishes to pass a secret or coded message
If both the receiver and the sender are far apart but can see each other
It can be used in case there is a language barrier
In an environmental where there is a lot of noise or physical interference to other forms of communication, sign language may be used
It can be appropriate where both the recipient and the sender understand the signs.

Explain four factors that have led to the popularity of mobile phones as a means of communication.

TOPIC 3:

TRANSPORT

TOPIC OBJECTIVES

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

Explain the meaning and importance of transport to business.
Explain the essential elements of transport.
Describe the modes and means of transport.
Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each means of transport.
Discuss the factors that influence choice of appropriate means of transport.
Discuss trends of transport.

MEANING OF TRANSPORT

Transport is the physical movement of people and goods from one place to another. It helps bridge the gap between producers and consumers hence creating place utility.

Importance of Transport to Business

Bridging the gap between producers and consumers/ linking consumers to producers-Transport links consumers to producers which enable the consumers to obtain the goods they need.
Employment creation-Transport helps in solving unemployment problem by creating job opportunities. For example, people may be employed as drivers, pilots, mechanics and road constructors.
Promotes specialization-Transport enables people to specialize in jobs they are best at. For example; producers would concentrate in production only while other people carry out distribution.
Making goods and services more useful-Through transport goods are moved from a place where they are least required to a place where they are most required thereby making them more useful.
Improving people’s standard of living-It enables consumers to get a variety of goods and services thereby improving the standards of living.
Availing a wide market for products-It helps producers to widen the markets for their products by enabling them access to areas they would otherwise not have accessed
Increased production/ facilitates mass production-Due to the wider market created through transport, producers are able to increase the volume of goods produced.
Avoiding wastage-Transport makes it possible for surplus goods to be disposed of by taking them to areas where they are required. Perishable goods such as flowers, fruits and vegetables can also be transported fast hence minimizing/ avoiding wastage.
Promoting development of industries-Through transport, raw materials can be taken to manufacturing industries and also finished goods to the market. Similarly, it promotes development of service industries such as tourism.
Adds value to goods and services- creates utility in goods by moving them from the point of production to where they are needed thereby adding their value.
Leads to the opening of new markets- Goods and services can be taken to new areas with ease.
It facilitates the movement of labour- people can easily move from where they stay to where they work

ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF TRANSPORT

In order for a transport system to function efficiently it should have certain basic elements. These elements are:

Unit(S) of carriage
Methods of propulsion
Ways
Terminals(terminus)

Unit(S) of carriage

This refers to anything i.e. vessel that is used to transport goods and people from one place to another. Units of carriage include: ships, trains, aeroplanes, motor vehicles, bicycles and carts. Units of carriage are also referred to as means of transport.

Methods of propulsion

This is the driving force (source of power) that makes a unit of carriage to move.The power for most vessels may be petroleum products, electricity, human force or animal power.

Ways

It refers to either the route or path passes by the vessel. The route can be on land, on water or through air. Examples of ways are roads, railways, paths, canals, seaways and airways. The ways can be classified into either natural ways or manmade ways.

Natural ways-As the name suggests, natural ways are the ways that are provided by nature. They are therefore free to acquire. They include airways and seaways.
Man-made ways-These are ways that are made available by human being. They include roads, canals and railways. Manmade ways are usually expensive to construct and maintain.

Terminals (terminuses)

The vessel used to carry goods and people starts from one destination and ends up at another. At these destinations the loading and off-loading take place respectively. The loading and off-loading places are referred to as terminals or terminus. Examples of terminuses are bus stations, airports and seaports.

MODES OF TRANSPORT

Mode refers to the manner in which transport is carried out. There are three modes of transport namely:

Land transport
Water transport
Air transport

Land transport

This mode of transport involves movement of goods and people using units of carriage that move on dry land. The various means under this mode includes:

Human Porterage

This involves human beings carrying goods on their heads, shoulders or backs. Human Porterage as a means of transport is the oldest kind of transport and is still very common in our society. The means is suitable for transporting light luggage over short distances. It is also appropriate where other means of transport are not available or convenient.

Advantages of Human Porterage

Could be the only means of transport available
Compliments other means of transport
Flexible as it has no fixed time table or routes
May be a cheap means compared to other means of transport
Readily available when required
Convenient over short distances

Disadvantages of human Porterage

Not suitable for long distances
They add onto congestion on roads
Not suitable for transporting heavy and bulky goods
It is relatively slow
Relies on human energy which is exhaustible

Carts

Carts are open vessels usually on two or four wheels that are pushed or pulled by either human being or animals such as oxen and donkeys. The carts pushed or pulled by human beings are referred to as hand carts or mikokoteni. The ones pulled by animals, on the other hand, are called animal driven carts. Carts are used to carry relatively large quantities compared to human porterage. Like human porterage, they are not suitable for long distances. Types of goods that are transported using this means include, agricultural produce, water and animal feeds.

Advantages of carts

Compliments other means of transport
Relatively cheap to hire
Initial buying and maintenance cost is low
Appropriate in remote areas where other means are not available
Readily available for hire
Can carry fairly heavier and bulky goods
Convenient for transporting goods over short distances

Disadvantages of carts

May not be suitable for transporting heavy and bulky goods
Cause traffic jams on roads leading to congestion and accidents
Not suitable for transporting goods over long distances

Vehicles

These are means (units of carriage) of transport that ferry goods and people on roads. Vehicles are the most commonly used means of transport.

Vehicles are either passenger or goods carriers. Passenger carriers may be buses, matatus, taxis and private cars while goods are transported using Lorries, pick-ups, tankers and trailers. Vehicles are expensive to acquire and maintain. The convenience of vehicles may depend on the nature of the road on which they travel.

Some roads are impassible especially when it rains while others are usable throughout the year (all weather roads).Of special concern in road transport is the matatus. These are privately owned passenger vehicles which were introduced to supplement the existing mainstream transport companies that were inadequate at independence. They got their name from the amount of fare they used to charge originally that is, mapeni matatu. The operators have to obtain the relevant documents such as insurance cover in order to be allowed to operate. Their owners may form associations which take care of their interests along given routes or in certain areas.

Advantages of matatus

They supplement regular bus companies, especially in remote areas where they are the only means.
They fill up faster than buses hence save time
They are more flexible since they can change routes easily depending on demand
They reach out into the interior of rural areas where big buses cannot access
They are more flexible with the fares they charge
They are easier to hire as most of them are readily available
They are cheaper to acquire as compared to buses

Disadvantages of matatus

Some Matatus are poorly maintained to the extent of being roadworthy
Most drivers are reckless as they rush to compete for customers. They pick or drop passengers anywhere
In some cases, touts use impolite language when dealing with passengers
They may cause noise pollution such as unnecessary hooting and loud music
They may cause congestion in towns unnecessarily because of careless driving and parking
Uncalled for sudden increase in fares at peak hours, during the night and on public holidays
Their operation is concentrated on peak hours, rarely operating at night.
They at times unexpectedly change their route hence causing breach of contract.

Advantages of vehicles

Most readily available means of transport
Relatively fast compared to carts and human Porterage
Relatively cheaper over short distances
Flexible as it can offer door to door service
Vehicles may be available for transporting special goods
Roads are widely spread thereby making many areas accessible.

Disadvantages of vehicles

Acquisition and maintenance costs are high
May not be suitable for transporting heavy and bulky goods over long distances as compared to railways
Traffic jams in roads may cause delays
Vehicle transport is prone to accidents which may lead to loss of goods and life
Some roads may be impassible especially during the rainy seasons.

Trains

Trains are vessels that transport goods and people on rails hence the term railways.

The terminuses of trains are the railways stations. Therefore; the goods to be transported by trains have to be taken to the railway station. Railway transport is suitable for heavy and bulky goods as well as passengers. There are two types of trains: cargo and passenger train.

Advantages of Trains

Relatively secure as cases of theft and accidents are rare
Enables a transporter to plan for the transport of his/her goods as trains follow a fixed time table
Economical for transporting heavy and bulky goods over a long distance
Trains may have facilities for carrying special types of goods e.g. gas, petrol and vehicles
Where shunting facilities are available trains may deliver goods up to or from the owner’s premises

Disadvantages of Trains

Not flexible as trains follow a strict time table
Railway lines are expensive to construct and to maintain
Not all areas are served by railway lines
Not suitable for transporting urgently required or perishable goods as it is slow
Unsuitable for transporting goods over short distances
Trains are expensive to acquire and maintain

Pipeline Transport

This is the movement of liquids and gases from one place to another through a pipe. Products transported through pipes include water, gases, petrol and diesel. Solids that cannot be dissolved or damaged by water may also be transported through pipes as suspension. Examples coffee berries from machines to drying places. The pipeline is both a vessel and a way.

Products flow by the force of gravity or pressure from an original station. If the original terminal is at a higher level than the receiving terminal, the force of gravity is adequate to move the product. But if the receiving terminal is at a higher level than the original than the originating terminal, then power is required to pump the product uphill. For example, petroleum from Mombasa which is at sea level needs pressure to pump it to all the receiving stations.

Advantages of pipeline Transport

It is labour saving as it requires minimal manpower
It is environmentally friendly since it is free of noise or smoke
It may be constructed in areas where it is difficult to construct roads or railway lines. For example, over rugged terrain
Pipelines allow continuous flow of the goods being transported
It ensures that road damage is reduced as the number of tankers is reduced on roads
It helps to reduce accidents that may be caused by tankers on roads
It reduces delays arising from congestion on roads
Maintenance costs are reduced as it relies on gravitational force and booster stations along the way
It may not be affected by adverse weather conditions

Disadvantages of pipeline Transport

A leakage not detected in good time may lead to high losses
Initial construction cost is high
Accidents leakages may lead to environmental pollution
It is unidirectional that is, travels only in one direction
It can transport only one product at a time
It is not flexible since once a line is laid, it cannot be adjusted according to transport patterns or demands
Generates comparatively fewer job opportunities as it is capital intensive
It is vulnerable to sabotage by enemies.
Once laid, it is difficult to re route or re locate.

Water Transport

It is a mode of transport where the units of carriage transport goods and people on water. Water in this case includes; navigable rivers, lakes, seas and oceans. The means of transport which are the units of carriage or vessels using this mode include; ships, dhows, boats, steamers and ferries. Water transport can be divided into inland waterways and sea transport.

Inland waterways

This is transport carried out on lakes, rivers and inland canals. The Lake Victoria facilitates transport among the three east African countries i.e. Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania. Ferries also connect the mainland to islands such as Rusinga Islands, found in Lake Victoria.

Water hyacinth has however been a threat to transport on the lake. Most rivers in Kenya are not navigable due to reasons such as:

Too small
Presence of rapids and waterfalls
Too shallow
Most are seasonal
High gradient

Sea Transport

This is where goods and people are transported in seas and oceans. All types of water vessels may be used in sea transport. Sea transport is important as it connects continents of the world thereby facilitating international trade. Kilindini in Mombasa provides a good natural harbor facilitating sea transport between Kenya and other countries of the world. Ferries also connect the island of Mombasa and the mainland.

Types of Water vessels

Ships

A ship is a large vessel that transports people or goods through water. Their sizes however vary depending on quantity of goods and passengers they carry. Ships help in connecting countries or places which borders the sea. They load and offload in terminals referred to as harbors found at sea ports. For example, the Kilindini harbor is found in the port of Mombasa.

Ships that transport people are referred to as passenger ship while those that transport goods are referred to as cargo ships. Cargo ships are c are convenient for carrying heavy and bulky goods.

Ships may also be classified as either liners or tramps.

Liners

These are ships that are owned and operated by shipping companies called conferences. Each conference is responsible for specifying the route on which each liner would operate the rates to be charged and setting the rules and regulations to be followed by the members.

Characteristics of liners

Have fixed routes
Follow a fixed time table
Charges are fixed
Call at specified ports along the route at specified intervals
Travel at regular intervals

Tramps

These are ships that do not follow a regular route or time table. Their routes therefore depend on demand. During times when demand is high, they charge higher rates and when demand is low they lower their rates. Tramps can therefore be likened to matatus. Tramps may be owned by either individuals or firms.

Characteristics of tramps

Do not have a fixed rate. They therefore move to wherever there are goods or passengers to carry.
Have no set time tables. They therefore move according to demand
Their fares change according to demand.
Their travelling patterns are irregular and therefore cannot be relied upon

NB: Liners and tramps owners are in constant competition business. Traders therefore need to choose the type of ships to hire. Liners are however more popular than tramps among traders because of their reliability.

When a trader hires an entire ship to transport goods to a given destination, he/she and the ship owner signs a document called a charter party. This document shows the terms and conditions under which the goods would be transported.

Other information included in the agreement are destination, nature of the goods and freight charges. When the ship is hired to carry goods for a given journey the document signed is referred to as voyage charter. On the other hand, if the ship is hired to transport goods for a given period of time, the document signed is called time charter.

Ships may be specially built to carry special commodities. These may include tankers specially built to transport petroleum products and other liquids. Refrigerated ships may also be available to transport perishable commodities such as meat, fish and fruits.

Boats and Ferries

These are water vessels used in transporting goods and people over short distances. They are therefore found in both inland water transport and also the sea transport e.g. the Likoni ferry in Mombasa carries people from and to the island of Mombasa and the main land.

Advantages of water transport

Sea transport is economical to the owner as the number of employees to carriage volume ratio is less compared to road transport
Suited for transporting heavy and bulky goods
It is cheap as the way is natural and free
Connects countries of the world which border the sea
Special types of ships are available for transporting goods
Large volume can be carried thereby reducing cost per unit
Not affected by traffic congestion.
Some ships can be very luxurious for passengers and may even provide swimming pools.
At the port/dock, there are many depots for storage of goods.

Disadvantages of water transport

Sea-sickness, sea-pirates and storms may occur
They are slow therefore not suitable for transporting perishable and urgently required goods
It is expensive to construct and maintain artificial harbors
Unfavorable weather conditions may affect water transport
Sea transport is not accessible to land locked countries
Lack of loading and off-loading facilities may lead to delay
Cost of acquiring and maintaining ships is high.
Theft of cargo and other valuables may occur during loading and offloading.
Air Transport

This refers to the movement of goods, people and documents by aircrafts. Aircrafts/ aeroplanes are the units of carriage and air the way. The terminals include airports and airstrips.

Aeroplanes are fast compared to other means of transport i.e. they are the fastest means of transport. They are therefore suitable for transporting urgently required goods like drugs and perishable goods Such as flowers over long distances.

Aircrafts may be classified as either passenger planes or cargo planes. Passenger planes transport people from one place to another. On the other hand, cargo planes transport light cargo to the required destinations. Aeroplanes may be fitted with special facilities for handling special goods. Aeroplanes are expensive to acquire and to maintain. Their operations may also be affected by weather conditions.

Advantages of Air Transport

There is less handling of goods on the way since aeroplanes may move direct to the final destinations.
The way does not require construction or maintenance as it is natural and free.
Planes can move through places where other means cannot, such as over the earth poles and across high mountains/ planes are not hampered by physical barriers.
Have efficient interconnections between airlines all over the world which makes it convenient
Suitable for long distance travelers especially from one continent to another
Very fast therefore suitable for transporting perishable and urgently required goods.
Chartered planes can be used to reach remote areas.
The movement of aircrafts is smooth therefore suitable for transporting fragile goods such as glassware and eggs.
Passengers are given the highest degree of comfort and personal attention making it the most comfortable means of transport.

Disadvantages of Air Transport

Causes noise pollution
Air fields are not available in all places
Cannot be conveniently used to carry heavy and bulky goods
Expensive to acquire and maintain aircrafts
Requires highly trained manpower e.g. air traffic controllers, pilots e. t. c
Unfavorable weather conditions such as fog, mist and heavy rains smay cause delay
It is an expensive means of transport in terms of freight charges
Not suitable for transporting inflammable goods such as cooking gas and petrol
In case of accidents results are catastrophic/ accidents are rare but fatal.
Has limited carrying capacity which should not be exceeded.
It is not flexible.
Most air fields/ terminals are located some distance away from town/ city centers and therefore require transport or railway links that are affected by jams occasionally causing delays.
Recent hijackings by terrorists have made air transport an insecure means especially for transporting valuables.

Containerization

This is a recent development in transport. It refers to the packaging of goods in standardized ‘box like’ containers designed for use in transporting cargo. The containers are mainly made of metal though a few are made of wood. They can either be hired or bought from firms that provide them. The hired containers are returnable to the owner after the goods have been transported.

Containers are designed in a way appropriate to transport goods by ships, train, lorry or by air. To safeguard the goods against risks such as theft and unfavorable weather conditions the containers are sealed immediately after goods have been packed. The sealed containers are then transported up to the final destination where they are off-loaded. The consignee can then break the seal.

Goods can be transported in containers as Full Container Load (F.C.L) or as Less Container Load (L.C.L).Full container load applies where the container is filled with goods belonging to one person. In FCL, goods are delivered to the consignee intact. On the other hand, less than container load applies where a container is filled with goods belonging to several consignors. This may be the case where a single consigner does not have enough goods to fill a container. When such a container reaches the destination, it is opened and the various consignees take their goods.

There are special handling facilities for loading and offloading containers onto and from the units of carriage.

Apart from the container depot at Mombasa, Kenya Ports Authority (K.P.A) has established inland container depots referred dry ports. An example of a dry port is found at Embakasi in Nairobi. The establishment of dry ports aims at relieving congestion at the sea port. It also aims at making handling of cargo easier and efficient for inland importers and exporters.

When containers are off loaded from ships at Mombasa, they are loaded into special container trains called railtainer which transports them by railway to the inland container depot at Embakasi. Containers can also be transported by specially designed trucks between the ports or from the port to consumer’s destination.

Advantages of containerization

Minimizes the risks of loss or damage of goods as containers are sealed at source
Containers are lifted with devices which make movement and handling easy
Saves time and labour in loading and off-loading due to use of machines
Containers sealed at source in presence of customs officials may not be opened until they reach their final destination. This reduces delay.
Special containers are available for goods requiring special attention like chemicals.
Insurance costs are relatively low as risks are less
Space is saved when containers are used as opposed to when individual items are packed in the carrier.
Can carry large quantities of cargo if packed well.
Containers are tough structure, which offer protection to sensitive and fragile goods.

Disadvantages of containerization

They are expensive and this increases the cost of transporting goods
Contributes to unemployment since it is capital intensive
Not suitable for transporting small quantities of goods.
Requires special handling equipment which may be expensive
May not be suitable for goods with irregular shapes.
Training labour force is long and expensive.
They may be used to smuggle illegal goods.
The large trucks used on the road increase road damage and may increase accidents.

Factors that influence the choice of appropriate means of transport

Cost; The cost of transporting a good should be reasonable; except where other factors should be considered such as need for quick delivery. Otherwise should be proportional to the value of goods transported.
Nature of goods; The nature of goods should be considered when choosing a means of transport. For example, perishable goods require a fast means. Similarly, heavy and bulky goods require a means of transport convenient for such goods e.g. trains and ship.
Reliability; The means chosen should be able to deliver the goods to the required place at the right time and in the right form.
Urgency; For goods that are urgently required, the fastest means available should be chosen.
Safety and Security; The means chosen should ensure that the goods on transit are secure against loss, theft or physical damages.
Distance; Some means of transport are suitable for long distances while others are suitable for short distances. If goods are to be transported for long distances, air, sea or railway transport would be appropriate, otherwise roads would be suitable for short distances.
Availability of means; The means of transport to be selected should be based on its availability. For example, where there is only one means of transport, it would be the only one to be chosen.
Flexibility; This is the ability of means of transport to be manipulated to suit the convenience of the transporter. Where flexibility is required, then the means that would provide such should be chosen. For example a matatu is usually more flexible than an aeroplane.
Terminals; Some means of transport may have their terminals near the transporter than others. In this case, the transporter should choose the means whose terminals are conveniently accessible to facilitate loading and offloading of goods.
Value of goods to be transported- goods of high value require special handling and high security during transportation.

Trends in transport

Pipeline and containerization
Electric trains are replacing diesel engines
Underground tunnels for trains are being used to ease congestion on the surface
Dual-carriage roads are being developed in various parts to ease congestion and minimize accidents
Development of planes with larger carrying capacity and speed is a major feature in the transport industry
Use of bicycles commonly known as bodaboda are a common feature in towns, bus terminals and rural areas, supplementing other means of transport to ferry people and cargo to their destinations. The bicycles are being modified to make them more convenient. It is not unusual to find a bicycle (bodaboda) which has been fitted with facilities such as:
Motors to increase their speed and reduce energy applied by the cyclist.
Music systems to entertain passengers and More comfortable seats.

Motor cycles are also being used as bodabodas in various areas. Similarly, the three wheeled vehicles commonly known as ‘Tuk Tuk’ is a major feature in cities and most towns.

Private personal vehicles with less carrying capacity e.g. four-seater vehicles are being used as matatus. The vehicles are convenient to the passengers as they:
Fill up within a shorter time compared to larger vehicles
May accommodate each of the customers interests.
Passenger vehicles are being fitted with radios, music systems and videos to entertain customers as they travel. However, some forms of entertainment may not be conducive to all.

END.

REVISION QUESTIONS ON TRANSPORT

KCSE PAST PAER 1

1996 State four circumstances under which a businessman would choose to transport goods by air? (4mks).
1997 Outline four reasons why a school in Kisumu may prefer to transport its sixty students to a music festival in Nairobi by train rather than by bus. (4mks).
1999 Give five reasons why a manufacturing firm would be located in an area well served by good road network.(4mks).
1999 Outline four limitations of containerization. (4mks).
2000 State four reasons why road transport is popular in Kenya.(4mks).
2001 State four ways in which the nature of goods would influence the choice of transport.
2002 Outline four reasons why a transporter of goods from Mombassa to Nairobi may prefer rail transport to road transport. (4mks).
2003 State the unit of carriage for each of the following modes of transport. (5mks)

Mode of transport Units of carriage

Portage
Sea
Road
Cartage
Air
2004 list four ways in which transport promotes growth of trade. (4mks)
2000 State four reasons why road transport is popular in Kenya. (4mks)
1995 Give 3 disadvantages of railway transport in Kenya. (4mks)
1998 List 4 disadvantages of using containers to transport goods. (4mks)

KCSE PAST QUESTIONS PAPER 2

1995 Explain five reasons that may account for continued use of hand carts as a mode of transport in Kenya. (12mks)
1996 The oil pipeline has recently been extended from Nairobi to western Kenya.
Explain five benefits that may be accounted to the country from the extension. (10mks).
1997 Explain five ways in which an efficient road transport system may promote trade within a country.(10mks).
1998 Discuss five factors that have hindered the expansion of railway transport in Kenya.
1999 Explain five features of an efficient transport system (8mks).
2000 Explain the advantages of pipeline as a mode of transporting oil products. (12mks).
2002 Outline five factors that should be considered when choosing a means of transport.
2003 Explain six advantages of containerization as a mode of transport.(10mks)
2004 Discuss six factors that may discourage the use of pipeline as a means of transporting petroleum products in a country.(12mks).
2005 Discuss 5 circumstances under which a trader may choose to transport goods by rail.

TOPIC 5

WAREHOUSING

Warehouse; This is a building or a part of a building where goods are received and stored until need arises for them.

-Other terms used to refer to a warehouse are depot, a go down or a silo.

Warehousing; This is the process of receiving goods into a warehouse, protecting such goods against all types of hazards and releasing them to users when need arises for them

-There are three distinct stages in warehousing process namely:

Receiving goods into a warehouse
Storing them
Releasing them to users

Importance of warehousing to Business

Steady/continuous flow of goods; Producers can produce and store goods awaiting demand through warehousing e.g. agricultural products that are produced seasonally are made available throughout the year
Stability in prices; Warehousing ensures that there is no surplus or shortage of goods. It ensures that goods are stored when in plenty and released to the market as their need arises. This helps to keep their prices fairly stable
Security; Warehousing ensures that goods are protected against physical damage and adverse weather conditions. This also ensures that the quality of the goods is maintained until they are demanded. Goods are also protected from loss through pilferage and theft.
Bridging the time lay/difference between production and consumption; many goods are produced in anticipation of demand. Such goods must be stored until their demand arises e.g. gumboots, umbrellas and sports equipment are needed seasonally but are manufactured in advance and stored in a warehouse so as to be released to the users when need arises for them.
Continuous/uninterrupted production schedules; Manufactures are able to buy raw materials in large quantities and store them awaiting their need to arise. This prevents interruption of the production process because of lack of raw materials
Preparation of goods for sale; While in the warehouse, goods can be prepared for sale e.g. they can be blended, packed, graded or sorted out.
Sale of goods; Goods may be sold while still in the warehouse. If sold while still in a bonded warehouse, duty passes to the buyer
Specialization; Warehousing encourages specialization in production and distribution. Producers concentrate on producing while distributors store the goods for sale to the customers.
Unexpected demand can be met; The government collects agricultural goods e.g. cereals and stores them as buffer stocks to be used in times of disaster or serious shortages.
Clearance of goods; Warehousing helps in clearance of goods i.e. goods entering the country can be inspected by the customs officials.
Warehousing helps to improve the quality of goods e.g. goods like tobacco and wine mature with time.
Warehousing enables buyers to inspect the goods before they buy them.
Wholesale warehouses may also operate as showrooms for traders.

Essentials of a warehouse

These are the features and resources a warehouse should have in order for it to function effectively.

These include;

Ideal location; A warehouse should be located at a suitable place to facilitate receipt and issue of goods e.g. a manufactures warehouse should be located near his/her factory.
Proper building; A warehouse should have proper buildings which are suitable for different types of goods to be stored.
Equipment; A warehouse should be equipped with appropriate facilities for handling goods such as fork-lifts conveyer belts e.t.c.It should also be well equipped with necessary storage facilities e.g. provision of refrigerated or cold storage for perishable goods such as meat and fruits.
Accessibility; A warehouse should be accessible to its users. It should therefore be linked with good and appropriate transport system to facilitate movement of goods in and out of the warehouse.
Safety and security; It should have/be fitted with safety equipment or facilities necessary for protection of goods against damaged caused by such things like water, fire or sunshine as well as for the protection of the personnel.
Communication; A warehouse should have a good communication network or system for easy contact with its clients and suppliers
Qualified personnel; A warehouse should have well trained and efficient staff/personnel for proper management and efficient functioning of the warehouse.
Recording system; There should be a proper recording system in a warehouse to ensure that all movement of goods is properly monitored.
A warehouse should be spacious enough to allow easy movement and accumulation of goods and personnel.

Types of warehouses

Warehouses can be broadly classified into three namely:

Private warehouses
Public warehouses
Bonded warehoused

Private warehouses

These are warehouses that are owned by private individuals/organizations for the purpose of storing their own goods only. They include;

Wholesalers warehouses
Producers warehouses
Retailer’s warehouses.

a) Wholesalers warehouses

These are warehouses for storing the wholesalers’ goods as they await distribution or sale. They need warehouses because they buy goods in bulk from producers and store them until they are needed by retailers.

-The wholesalers warehouses also act as showrooms i.e. they display their goods in the warehouse.

-These warehouses also enable the wholesalers to prepare their goods for sale e.g. branding, blending, packing and sorting may be carried out in the warehouse

b) Producers warehouses;

-These warehouses are owned by producers and they are for storing goods prior to their demand.

-The producers may be manufactures of finished goods or farmers

-Such warehouses are built near the manufactures factories or the farmers production points.

-Manufactures who export may locate some warehouses near ports through which they export e.g Mumias sugar warehouse, Bamburi Portland cement warehouse e.t.c

c) Retailers warehouses

Some large-retailers such as chain stores and supermarkets own warehouses for storing their large stores

-It becomes necessary for such business to have warehousing facilities due to their large and bulky purchases dictated by the nature of their business

-Goods are distributed from their warehouses to the retail outlets or to the branches

Advantages of private warehouses

The owner has full control over its operation and may make major decisions without having to consult anyone.
The warehouse is designed to suit the specific needs of the organizations
It enables special handling, storage and protection of goods by having special facilities which may not be available in a public warehouse
The owner is not tied down by procedures of receiving and issuing goods unlike in public warehouse.
The owner does not incur the cost of hiring space unlike with a public warehouse
The operation can be easily automated because the goods to be received stored and dispatched are already known.

Disadvantages of private warehouses

The initial construction cost of a warehouse is high
Under-utilization of personnel and facilities may occur especially in times of low volumes
They may not employ qualified management personnel and are consequently disadvantaged in dealing with management problem.
Risks arising from dangers such as fire,pests,theft or damage are not spread

Public warehouses

These are warehouses owned by individuals or organizations who do business by renting space. To those traders who are in need of storage facilities to store goods temporarily. They have the following characteristics;

Are owned and operated by individuals or companies who do not use them for storing their own goods.
Are open to any member of the public who wish to rent storing space for their goods
The customers pay on the basis of space rented and the period of time required to store the goods.
They are often situated near terminals as airports, sea-ports and railway station and industrial areas. This facilitates the movement of goods in and out of the warehouse.
The rent paid includes charges for insurance and other services i.e. goods are insured against loss or damage as a result of fire or theft while they are still in the warehouse.
They provide other services apart from storing the goods e.g. grading,packaging,preparing export samples, preparing market reports and clerical documents
Imported goods can be sold while they are still in the public warehouse. If such a transaction takes place the goods may change ownership without being physically moved out of the warehouse. This becomes possible if the importer has signed a document called ‘a warehouse-warrant’ (which is a negotiable instrument out of order), it is issued by the new owner after the transaction has taken place.

Advantages of a public warehouses

A public warehouse serves a number of customers that deal with the same product. It assembles the small orders from these customers and places one order for all of them. This enables them to enjoy economies of large scale buying and delivery of goods to a warehouse.
Goods stored in a public warehouse may be sold without their physical movement from the warehouse.
Traders can rent space to store their goods
Traders do not have to construct their own warehouses/do not have to tie up capital in storage buildings and handling equipment.
Goods are insured against risks such as damage by fire and theft
A trader may get a short term loan from the warehousing firm by using the goods held as collateral security.
Apart from the handling, sorting and documentation of goods additional services such as bottling, bagging and repairs of damaged goods can be offered by public warehouses.
Sharing equipment and machinery enables the users to reduce handling costs
Inspection, re-packaging and labeling services provide users of public warehouses the expertise they themselves may not have.

Disadvantages of public warehouses

The hirer is denied the opportunity to physically handle the goods and is forced to compete for attention with other hirers of the warehouse. If the hirer had his/her own warehouse, he/she would have absolute authority on the goods and therefore enjoy individual attention.
The hirer may lose contact with his/her customers since they get goods from a rented warehouse, away from the hirers premises
The hirer may get poor services or miss space altogether during peak seasons due to stiff competition for the same facility.
Documentation involving receipt and release of goods in a public warehouse is likely to be a long and complicated procedure due to the large number of clients involved.
Continued renting of space can even be more expensive than constructing one’s own warehouse in the long run
Public warehouses are sometimes situated far away from the hirer’s premises unlike private ones which are usually within the vicinity of the owner’s premises.
The operations of a general merchandise public warehouse are difficult to automatic because different kinds of goods need different methods and equipment to handle them.

Bonded warehouses

These are public warehouses for keeping imported goods until customs duties have been paid against them. They are mainly located at the points through which goods enter a country

-Imported goods are kept in this type of warehouses if the owner has not paid customs duties. Such goods are said to be “goods under bond”or “goods in bond”

–Bonded warehouses are so called because the owners of such warehouses give a ‘bond’ to the customs authorities i.e. a sum of money as guarantee that they will not release goods from the warehouses until customs duties have been paid.

-The importer may withdraw the goods either in part or in full after the customs duties have been paid for the goods he/she intends to collect.

-If the goods are sold while still in a bonded warehouse, the new owner of the goods pays the duty before taking them out of the warehouse.

-If the goods re-exported to another country while still in a bonded warehouse, the importer does not have to pay the customs duties e.g an importer may import some goods and further prepare them for sale inside a bonded warehouse and can then re-export them without having paid the customs duties

-When the importer pays the duties to the customs officials, a “release warrant” is issued. This is a document that enables the importer to have his/her goods released from a bonded warehouse

-Bonded warehouses have resident customs officials who monitor the movement of goods in and out of a bonded warehouse.

Features of a bonded warehouse

Goods are bonded until customs duty is paid
Goods can be re-exported while in the warehouse
Storage charges are made on all goods stored in the warehouse
Goods can be sold while still under bond
Goods can be inspected and prepared for sale i.e. they can be repacked, branded and blended while in the warehouse
Goods are released only on the production of a release warrant

Advantages of bonded warehouse to the importer

While in bond, goods can be prepared for sale
The owner can look for the market for the goods before paying the duty
Some goods lose weight while in the warehouse so the duty paid becomes lower if based on weight.
If goods are sold while still in the bonded warehouse, the duty passes to the buyer
The importer has more time to arrange for payment of customs duty.
Security is provided for the goods, so the importer is relived of the task of providing security for his/her goods
Some goods improve in quality while in a warehouse for example, wine and tobacco.

Advantages of Bonded warehouse to the Government

The government gets revenue by levying duty on the goods
The government is able to control the entry of harmful goods
The government is able to verify the documents for goods in transit
The government is able to check on the quantity, quality and the nature/type of goods imported.
The government is able to check on illegal goods entering the country.

Disadvantages of a bonded warehouse

The importer may eventually fail to pay customs duties. This forces the customs authorities to auction the bonded goods in order to recover the duties.
When the importer withdraws goods from a bonded warehouse he/she ends up paying a higher duty if he/she had paid the duty at once.
The importer incurs costs in hiring a bonded warehouse as opposed to if he/she had a private warehouse

Free warehouses

These are warehouses in which tax-free goods are kept awaiting sale or collection by owners

-Goods stored in these warehouses can be either locally produced, requiring no taxation or imported goods for which customs duties have already been paid.

NOTE: i) All warehouses apart from bonded warehouses are free warehouses since goods held in them are not subject to control by customs authorities. This includes all private and public warehouses

Locally produced goods are stored in free warehouses since no custom duties are paid for them.

Advantages of free warehouses

Owners of goods stored need not to pay any taxes, thus the goods cannot be auctioned for failure to pay customs duties
It is cheaper to store goods in free warehouses as compared to bonded warehouses since there are no customs duties levied.
Clearence of the goods from the warehouse is simple since a “release warrant” to prove payments of duties is necessary
These warehouses are located at places that are convenient to users

Disadvantages of free warehouses

The Government does not benefit since no customs duty is levied on the goods stored
Some unscrupulous traders might use them to store durable goods so as to evade tax.
Checking and security of goods is more relaxed hence the possibility of storing illegal goods.

Current trends and emerging issues in warehousing

Warehousing technology is undergoing important changes in both building design and handling in storage equipment. These may include;

Warehousing design-In modern times, there is an increasing emphasis on high ceiling warehouses to permit storage of more goods and to make it possible for the movement of fork lift trucks and stuck-cranes
Handling of goods-Handling includes the steps involved in moving of goods to and from storage. There is widespread use of modern machines in most warehouses such as conveyer belts, tracks, forklifts and stuck cranes. The use of automated stucker cranes which more by remote control in a fixed path on guide rails, is a new development in warehousing

Computerization has also greatly helped in monitoring the movement of stock in and out of storage. This has eased the handling, especially in loading and unloading of goods.

Storage of goods-Storage is the condition of the goods at rest in their assigned areas of the warehouse. Most warehouses are currently using storage racks that permit replacement or retrieval of goods without disturbing neighbouring
Environmental pollution-Goods that expired or spoilt while in the warehouse are sometimes discarded in a manner or in areas that may cause pollution to the environment e.g. expired chemicals are sometimes thrown into rivers and oceans thereby endangering the marine life.

-Other times they are burned causing air pollution with toxic gases. Some goods when thrown on land are dangerous to human life

-To avoid the effects of improper disposal of expired or spoilt goods the warehouse owners should come up with methods that are environmentally friendly such as recycling of these goods. They should also be socially responsible for whatever goes out from their warehouses.

TOPIC 6

INSURANCE

Insurance-This is an undertaking or contract between an individual or business and an insurance an occurrence of risk(s) (i.e. against events whose occurrences are unforeseen but causes financial losses or suffering to the affected parties.

Risks are also referred to as contingencies, hazards or perils and include:

–Fire outbreak

-Accidents

-Thefts

-Deaths

-Disabilities

-Risks are real and unforseen.Methods to eliminate such risks has achieved very little and thus has necessitated the need for insurance.

Importance of insurance

Continuity of business

Every business enterprise is exposed to a variety of risks e.g. fire, theft e.t.c.The occurrence of such risks often result in financial losses to the business. Insurance provides adequate protection against such risks in that, if a trader suffers losses as a result of insured risk, she/he is compensated, thus he/she is able to continue with business operations.

Investment projects

Insurance enables investors to invest in profitable yet risky business projects that would otherwise avoided.

Not all the money received as premiums (by the insurance companies) is used up for compensation to those who have been exposed to risk and suffered losses. The rest of the money is invested in other businesses to earn profits.

Creation of employment

Insurance does provide employment opportunities to members of the public.

Government policy

The profits earned are a source of revenue for the government i.e. insurance companies are profit-making organizations which generate revenue to the government through payments of taxes

Credit facilities

The insurance industry have also established credit or lending facilities which the business community uses by borrowing. Loans are made available to the public for different investment projects in different sectors of the economy and also for personal requirements.

Development of infrastructures

The insurance industry plays a crucial role in the development of urban facilities in major towns. Both residential and office buildings have been developed by insurance firms. The firms also participate in development projects in the areas where they operate. They contribute to development of a region by constructing and infrastructural facilities

Life policies can be used as security for loans from either the insurance company or other financial institutions.
Provision of life and general insurance policies encourages Kenyans to plan ahead for their dependants thereby reducing the number of needy future students.
Loss prevention-The insurance companies encourage the insured not to cause accidents thus channeling the unclaimed resources into the economy.

THE THEORY OF INSURANCE

The insurance business relies on the law of large numbers in its operations. According to this law, there should be a large group of people faced with similar risks and these risks spread over a certain given geographical area.

Every person in the group contributes at regular intervals, small amounts of money called premium into a “common pool”. The pool is administered and controlled by the insurance company.

The fact that risks are geographically spread ensures that insurance does not have a concentration of risks in one particular area.
The law of large numbers enables the insurance to accurately estimate the future probably losses and the number of people who are likely to apply for insurance. This is done in order to determine the appropriate premiums to be paid by the person taking out insurance.

Pooling of risks

The insurance operation is based on the theory that just a few people out of a given lot may suffer a loss. There is therefore a “pooling of risks” i.e the loss of the unfortunate few is spread over all the contributors of the group, each bearing a small portion of the total loss. This is why the burden of loss is not felt by the individuals because it is “shared” by a large group.

Benefits of the “pooling of Risks” to insurance company

Pooling of risks enables an insurance company to create a common pool of funds from the regular premiums from different risks.
It enables the insurance company to compensate those who suffer loss when the risks occur
The insurance company is able to spread risks over a large number of insured people
Surplus funds can be invested in for example, giving out loans or buying shares in real estates
It enables the insurance company to meet its operating costs by using the pool funds
It enables the insurance company to calculate to be paid by each client
It enables the company to re-insure itself with another insurance company.

Terms used in Insurance

Insurance

This is a written contract that transfers to an insurer the financial responsibility for losses arising from insured risk.

Premium

This is the specified amount of money paid at regular intervals by the insured to the insurer for coverage against losses arising from a particular risk.

Risk

These are perils or events against which an insurance cover is taken. It is the calamity or problem a person or business faces and results into losses.

Note: The calculation of premiums depends upon the type of risk insured against. The higher the probability of the risk occurring, the higher the premium. The more the risks the business or person is exposed to the more the premiums payable.

Pure risk

This is a risk which results in a loss if it occurs and results in no gains if it does not occur. For example, if a car is involved in an accident, there will be a loss and if the accident does not occur there will be no gain or loss

Speculative risk

This is a risk which when it occurs, may result in a loss or a profit. For example, a person may buy shares at ksh.50 each, one year later the shares may be valued at ksh40 each meaning a loss of ksh.10

Alternatively, their value might not have changed or might have increased to ksh.45 each. Speculative risk lures people to venture into business in the first place.

Insured

This is the individual or the business that takes out the insurance cover and therefore becomes the policy holder

The insured pays premiums to the insurance company to be compensated should the risk insured against occur or cause loss.

Insurer

This is the business company that undertakes to provide cover or protection to the people who suffer loss as a result of occurrence of risks

Actuaries

These are people employed by an insurance company to complete expected losses and calculate the value of premiums.

Claim

This is a demand by the insured for payment from the insurer due to some loss arising from an insured risk.

Policy

This is a document that contains the terms and conditions of the contract between the insurer and the insured. Its issued upon payment of the first premium.

Information contained in a policy includes;

Name, address and occupation
Policy number of the insured
Details of risks insured
Value of property insured
Premiums payable
Other special conditions of the insurance, for example nominees

Actual value

This is the true value of the property insured

Sum insured

This is the value for which property is insured, as stated by the insured at the time of taking the policy.

Surrender value

This is the amount of money that is refunded to the insured by the insurer incase the former(i.e. the insured) terminates payment of the premiums before the insurance contract matures. The policy holder is paid an amount less than the total amount of the premium paid.

Grace period

This is term allowed between the date of signing the contract and the date of payment of the first premium. During this period the insurance contract remains valid. This period is usually a maximum of thirty (30) days.

Proposer

This is a person wishing to take out an insurance cover (prospective insured)

Cover note (Binder)

This is a document given by the insurance company to an insured on payment of the first premium while awaiting for the policy to be processed. It is proof of evidence that the insurer has accepted to cover a proposed risk.

Annuity

This is a fixed amount of money that an insurer agrees to pay the insured annually until the latter’s death. It occurs when a person saves a lumpsum amount of money with an insurer in return for a guaranteed payment which will continue until he/she dies.

Consequential loss

This is loss incurred by a business as a result of disruption of business in the event of the insured risk occurring.

Assignment

This is the transfer of an insurance policy by an insured to another person. Any claims arising from the transferred policy passes to the new policy holder called an assignee

Beneficiaries

These are people named in a life assurance policy who are to be paid by the insurer in the event of the insured

Nomination

This is the act of designing one or more people who would be the beneficiaries in the event of death of the insured. These people are called nominees

Average clause

This clause is usually included in policies to discourage under-insurance. The clause provides that the insured can only recover such proportions of the loss as the value of the policy bears on the property insured. It is usually included in marine or fire insurance policies.

The amounts recoverable are arrived at using the following formulae:

Compensation = value of the policy * loss

Value of property

Example:

If a house worth kshs.800,000 and insured against fire for kshs.600,000 was damaged by fire to the tune of kshs.400,000,the insured would be compensated;

Compensation= (600,000 x 400,000)

800,000 (value insured x Actual loss)

Double insurance

This is taking of insurance policies with more than one company in respect to the same subject matter and the risk. It is significant because if one of the insurers is insolvent at the time the claim arises the insured can enforce his/her claim against the solvent insurer or if both insurers are solvent then they share compensation.

(Insolvency is a state where a business is not able to pay all its liabilities from its existing assets)

Co-insurance

This is an undertaking by more than one insurance company to provide insurance cover for the same risk for an insured. This will usually occur for properties that have great value and face great risk exposures that an insurer cannot successfully make compensation for e.g. value of aeroplanes, ships e.t.c

Co-insurance help spread risks to several insurers, each insurer covering only a certain proportion of the total value. The insurance company with the largest share is called the “leader” and acts on behalf of all the participating insurance companies’ e.g. in collecting premiums from the insured and carrying out documentation work, making claim after collecting each insurers premium contribution e.t.c

Note: Co-insurance is different from double-insurance in that in co-insurance company approaches another insurance company to help in covering the insured property while in double-insurance; it’s the insured who decides to approach different insurance companies to insure the same property against the same risk.

Re-insurance

‘Re-insurance’ means insuring again. This is a situation where an insurance company insures itself with a bigger insurance company called le-insurer for all or part of the risks insured with it by members of the public

Re-insurance indirectly insure an individuals risks.Re-insurance helps to reduce the burden on an insurance company when the loss is too high for a single insurer. When such losses occurs, the claim is met by both the insurer and re-insurer(s) proportionately (according to agreed percentages)

Note: Re-insurance deal with the protection of insurance companies only, while insurance companies protect individuals and business organizations.

Factors that may make it necessary for an insurance company to Re-insure

Value of property-When the value of property is great, such as ship, the risk is too high to be borne by a single insurer
High risk of loss-When chances of loss through the insured risks are high, it becomes necessary to re-insure.
Number of risks covered-When the insurance company has insured many different risks, it would be too costly to compensate many claims at once, hence the need for re-insurance
Need to spread the risk-When the insurance company wishes to share liability in the event of a major loss occurring
Government policy-The government may make a legal requirement for an insurance company to re-insure

Under-insurance

This occurs when the sum insured as contained in the policy is less than the actual value of the property e.g. A property of shs.500, 000 can be offered for insurance as having a value of shs.400, 000

Over-insurance

This is a situation where the sum insured is more than the correct value of property e.g. a person insures property of shs.300,000 for shs.600,000.If total loss occurs, he is compensated the correct value of the property i.e. that which he has lost

Agents

These are people who sell insurance policies on behalf of the insurance company. They are paid on commission that is dependent upon the total value of policies sold

Insurance Brokers

These are professional middlemen in the insurance process. They connect the people wishing to take insurance with the insurers. They act on behalf of many different insurance firms, unlike agents. Their activities include:

Examination of insurance market trends
Correspondence between the insured and his clients
Advising the insured and would be policy holders on the best policies for their property e.t.c.

He receives a commission (reward) known as brokerage.

PRINCIPLES OF INSURANCE

Principles of insurance provide guidance to the insurance firms at the time they are entering into a contract with the person taking the cover. These insurance principles include:

Help to determine whether a valid insurance contract exists between the two parties at the time claims are made.
Provide checks and controls to ensure successful operations of insurance for the benefit of both the parties

It is therefore important that a prospective insured (person wishing to take insurance policy) has basic knowledge of these principles as stated in the insurance law.

The insurance principles include;

Insurable Interest

This principle states that an insurance claim cannot be valid unless the insured person can prove that he has directly suffered a financial loss and not just because the insured risk has occurred.

Going by this principle one cannot insure his parents or friends or other people’s property since he/she has no insurable interest in them. If such properties are damaged or completely destroyed, he/she will not suffer any financial loss.

For example, Mr.x has no insurable interest in the property of his neighbours.He does not suffer any financial loss should they be destroyed. This principle ensures that people are not deliberately destroying other people’s properties/life in order for them to receive compensation.

In life insurance (life assurance) it is assumed that a person has unlimited interest in his/her own life. Similarly it is assumed that one has insurable in the life of spouse and children e.g. a wife may insure the life of her husband, a father the life of his child because there is sufficient insurable interest.

Indemnity

The essence of this principle is that the insurer will only pay the “replacement value” of the property when the insured suffers loss as a result of an insured risk.

This principle thus puts the insured back to the financial position he enjoyed immediately before the loss occurred.

It is therefore not possible, then, for anybody to gain from a misfortune by getting compensation exceeding the actual financial loss suffered as this will make him gain from a misfortune.

This principle does not apply in life assurance since it is not possible to value one’s life or a part of the body in terms of money. Instead, the insurance policy states the amount of money the insured can claim in the event of death.

Utmost good faith (uberrima fides)

In this principle the person taking out a policy is supposed to disclose the required relevant material facts concerning the property or life to be insured with all honesty. Failure to comply to this may render the contract null and void hence no compensation.

e.g.

-A person suffering from a terminal illness should reveal this information to the insurer.

-One should not under-insure or over-insure his/her property.

Subrogation

This principle compliments the principle of indemnity. It does so by ensuring that a person does not benefit from the occurrence of loss.

According to this principle, whatever remains of the property insured after the insured has been compensated according to the terms of the policy, becomes the property of the insure.

Example

Assuming that Daisy’s car is completely damaged in an accident and the insurance compensates for the full value of the loss, whatever remains of the old car (now scrap), belongs to the insurance company

Scrap metal can be sold for some values and should Daisy take the amount she would end up getting more amount than the value of the car which will be against the principle of indemnity.

Note: This principle cannot be applicable to life assurance since there is nothing to subrogate.

Proximate cause

This principle states that for the insured to be compensated there must be a very close relationship between the loss suffered and risk insured i.e. the loss must arise directly from the risk insured or be connected to the risk insured.

Example

If a property is insured against fire then fire occurs and looters take advantage of the situation and steal some of the property, the insured will suffer loss from ‘theft’ which is a different risk from the one insured against, so he/she will not be compensated.

However if the property burns down as a result of sparks from the fire-place, the proximate cause of the loss is sparks which are directly related to fire. So the insured is entitled for compensation.

CLASSES OF INSURANCE

Insurance covers are mainly classified into two,

Property (non-life) general insurance
Life assurance

Life Assurance

The term assurance is used in respect of life contracts. It is used to mean that life contracts are not contracts of indemnity as life cannot be indemnified i.e. put back to the same financial position he was in before the occurrence of loss.(life has no money value, no amount of money can give back a lost or injured life)

Life insurance (assurance) is entered by the two parties in utmost good faith and the premiums payable in such life contracts depend on:

Age; The higher the age the higher the premiums as the age factor increase the chances of occurrence of death.
Health condition; A person with poor health i.e. sickly person pays higher premiums as opposed to one in good health.
Exposure to health risks; The nature of a person’s occupation can make him susceptible to health problems and death.

Types of policies

Whole life assurance – In whole life assurance, the assured pays regular premiums until he/she dies. The sum assured is payable to the beneficiaries upon the death of the assured.

–Whole life assurance covers disabilities due to illness or accidents i.e. if the insured is disabled during the life of the policy due to illness or accidents, the insurer will pay him/her for the income lost.

ii) Endownment policy/insurance

This is whereby the insured pays regular premiums over a specified period of time. The sum assured is payable either at the expiry of the period (maturity of policy) or on death of the insured, whichever comes first.

The insured, at expiry of policy is given the total sum assured to use for activities of his own choice.(ordinary endownment policy)

-Where the insured dies before maturity of contract, the beneficiaries are given these amounts.

Note; The assured person may be paid a certain percentage of the sum assured at intervals until the expiry of the policy according to the terms of contract. Such an arrangement is known as Anticipated Endowment policy.

Advantages of Endowment policies

They are a form of saving by the insured, for future investments
Premiums are payable over a specified period of time which can be determined to suit his/her needs e.g. retirement time
Where the assured lives and time policy matures, he receives the value of sum assured.
Policy can be used as security for loans from financial institutions.

Differences Between a whole life policy and an Endowment policy

Whole life	Endowment
● Compensation is paid after the death of the assured	● Compensation is paid after the expiry of an agreed period
● Premiums are paid throughout the life of the assured	Premiums are paid only during an agreed period
● Benefits go to the dependants rather than the assured	The assured benefits unless death proceeds the expiry of the agreed period
● Aims at financial security of dependants	Aims at financial security of the assured and dependants

iii) Term insurance

The insured here covers his life against death for a given time period e.g. 1yr, 5yrs e.t.c.

If the policy holder dies within this period, his/her dependants are compensated.

If the insured does not die within this specified period, there is no compensation. However, a renewal can be taken.

IV) Education plan/policies

This policy is normally taken by parents for their children’s future educational needs.

The policy gives details of when the payments are due.

v) Statutory schemes

The Government offers some types of insurance schemes which are aimed at improving/providing welfare to the members of the scheme such as medical services and retirement benefits.

A member and the employer contribute, at regular intervals, certain amounts of money towards the scheme.

Examples

S.S.F
H.I.F
Widows and children pension scheme (W.C.P.S)
Annuity

Characteristics of life Assurance

It is a cover for life until death or for a specified period of time
It may be a saving plan
It is normally a long term contract and does not require an annual renewal
It has a surrender value
It has a maturity date when the assured is paid the sum assured bonuses and interests.
A life assurance policy can be assigned to beneficiaries
The policy can be any amount depending on the assureds’ financial ability to pay premiums
The policy can be used as security for a loan

General insurance (property insurance)

This type of insurance covers any form of property against the risks of loss or damage. A person can insure any property he has an insurable interest in

General insurance is usually divided into;

Fire insurance/department
Accident insurance/department
Marine insurance/department
Accident insurance

This department covers all sorts of risks which occur by accident and includes the following;

Motor policies

-These provide compensation for partial or total loss to a vehicle if the loss results from an accident.

-The policy could either be third party or comprehensive.

–Third party policies cover all damages caused by the vehicle to people and property other than the owner and his/her vehicle. This includes pedestrians, fare-paying passengers, cows, fences and other vehicles

In Kenya, a motor-vehicle owner is required by law to have this policy before the vehicle is allowed on the roads. One can also take a third party, fire and theft policy.

Comprehensive policy covers damages caused not only to the third party but also to the vehicle itself and injuries suffered by the owner. Comprehensive policies include full third party, fire, theft and malicious damage to the vehicle.

Personal accident policy

-These policies are issued by insurance companies to protect the insured against personal accidents causing;

Injury to the person
Partial or total physical disability as a result of the injury
Loss of income as a result of death

-If death occurs due to an accident, the insured’s beneficiaries are paid the total sum assured.

In case of a partial or total disability as a result of accident, the insured can be paid on regular periods, e.g. monthly as stipulated in the policy.

Compensation for injuries where one loses a part of his/her body can be done on a lump sum basis.

The insured is also paid the value of hospital expenses incurred if hospitalized as a result of an accident.

Cash and / or Goods in Transit policies

These are policies that specifically provide cover for loss of cash and goods in transit between any two locations.

E.g. Goods and cash moved from business to the markets, from suppliers to business e.t.c

d) Burglary and Theft policies

These policies cover losses caused by robbers and thieves

Burglary policies are enforceable only if the insured has met the specified safety and precautionary measures for protection of the insured items.

E.g.-How much money should be maintained in different kinds of safety boxes

-Positioning of each of the cash boxes is also an important precautionary measure.

NB: The control measures are aimed at reducing both the extent and probability of loss occurring

e) Fidelity Guarantee policies

These policies cover the employers against loss of money and/or goods caused by their employees in the cause of duty.

-The losses may be as a result of embezzlement, fraud, arithmetical errors e.t.c

-The policies may cover specified employees or all the employees

7) Workmen’s compensation (Employer’s Accident liability)

These policies provide compensation for employees who suffer injuries in the course of carrying out their duties.

The employer insures his employee against industrial injuries i.e the employer is only liable for the compensation of workers who suffer injuries at work.

f) Public liability

This insurance covers injury, damages or losses which the business or its employees cause to the public through accidents.

The insurer pays all claims from the public upto an agreed maximum

g) Bad debts

This policy covers firms against losses that might result from debtor’s failure to pay their debts.

iii)Marine Insurance

This type of insurance covers ships and cargo against the risk of damage or destruction at the sea. The main risks sea vessels are exposed to include; fire, theft, collision with others, stormy weather, sinking e.t.c

Types of Marine Insurance policies

The marine insurance covers are classified as Hull, cargo, freight and ship owners’ liability.

Marine Hull

This policy covers the body of the ship against loss or damage that might be caused by sea perils.

Included here are any equipment, furniture or machinery on the ship.

A special type of marine hull is the part policy, which is for a specified period when the ship is loading, unloading or at service.

Marine Cargo

This type of policy covers the cargo or goods carried by the ship

The policy is taken by the owners of the sea vessels to cover the cargo being transported. It has the following sub-divisions.

Voyage policy-Here cargo and ship are insured for a specific voyage/journey. The policy terminates automatically once the ship reaches the destination.
Time policy-Here insurance is taken to cover losses that may occur within a specified period of time, irrespective of the voyage taken
Fleet policy-This covers a fleet of ships,i.e several ships belonging to one person, under one policy.
Floating policy-This policy covers losses that may occur on a particular route, covering all the ships insured along that route for a specified period
Mixed policy-This policy provides insurance for the ship and cargo on specified voyages and for a particular period of time. No compensation can be made if the ship was on a voyage different from the ones specified even if time has not expired
Composite policy-This is where several insurance companies have insured one policy of a particular ship especially when the sum insured is too large to be adequately covered by one insurer.
Construction policy/builders policy-This covers risks that a ship is exposed to while it is either being constructed, tested or being delivered.
Freight policy-This is an insurance cover taken by the owner of the ship for compensation against failure to pay hiring charges by a hirer of the ship.
Third parties liability-This is an insurance policy taken by the owner of the ship to cover claims that might arise from damage caused to other people’s property.

Description of marine losses

The following are some of the losses encountered in marine insurance.

Total loss,

This occurs where there is complete loss or damage to the ship and cargo insured. Total loss can be constructive or actual.

In Actual total loss, the claims are as a result of the ships and/or cargos complete destruction. It could also occur;

-When a ship and its cargo are so damaged that what is salvaged is of no market value to both the insurer and the insured.

-When a ship is missing for a considerable period of time enough to assume that it has sunk.

–Constructive total loss occurs when the ship and/or cargo are totally damaged but retrieved. It may also occur;

-Where a ship and its cargo are damaged but of market value. This could be as a result of decision to abandon the ship and cargo as the probability of total loss appears imminent.

-If the cost of preventing total loss may be higher than that of the ship and its cargo when retrieved e.g many lives may be lost in the process of trying to prevent total loss.

General average-This is a loss that occurs as a result of some of the cargo being thrown into the sea deliberately to save the ship and the rest of the cargo from sinking. The losses made are shared by the ship owners and the cargo owners proportionately as the effort was in the interest of both.
Particular average-This occurs where there is a partial but accidental loss to either the ship or the cargo. When this happens each of the affected party is soldy responsible for the loss that has occurred to his property. A claim can, however be made if the loss incurred amounts to more than 3% of the value insured.

Fire insurance-This type of insurance covers property damage or loss caused by accidental fire. Cover is offered to domestic commercial and industrial premises, plant and machinery, equipment, furniture fittings stock e.t.c

In order to claim for compensation as a result of loss by fire, the following conditions must be fulfilled;

Fire must be accidental
Fire must be immediate cause of loss
There must be actual fire.

There are several types of types of fire insurance policies. These include;

Consequential loss policy;(profit interruption policy)

This covers or compensates the insured for the loss of profit suffered when business operations have

It is offered to protect future earnings of an enterprice after fire damage.

Sprinkler leakage policy-This provides cover against loss or damage caused to goods or premises by accidental leakages from fire fighting sprinklers
Fire and Related perils policy-This covers buildings which include factories, warehouses, shops, offices and their contents. The policy does not cover loss of profit arising from fire damage.

CHARACTERISTICS OF GENERAL INSURANCE

It’s a contract of indemnity
It cannot be assigned even to ones relatives
The insured must have an insurable interest in the property to be insured
Premiums charged depends on the degree of risk, the higher the premium charged.
Compensation for loss can only be upto a maximum of the value of the insured property or the sum insured in case of under insurance.
It has no surrender value
It’s normally a short term contract which can be renewed periodically, usually after one year.

Factors to be considered when Determining Premiums to be charged

Health of the person
Frequency of occurrence of previous losses
Extent of the previous losses
Value of the property insured

Insurance	Gambling
-The insured must have insurable interest	-A gambler has no insurable interest
-Reinstates the insured back to the financial position just before loss	-Aims at improving the winners financial position
-The insured is expected to pay regular premiums for the insurance cover to remain in force	-Gambling money is paid only once
-Insurance involves pure risks	-Gambling involves speculative risks
-The event of loss might never occur	-The event of bet must happen to determine the winner and the loser.

Occupation of the insured
Age of the person or of the property in question
Location of the insured(address and geographical location)
Period to be covered by the policy
Residence of the insured.

Procedure for taking a policy

Filling a proposal form
Calculation of the premium to be paid
Issuing of cover note (Binder)
Issuing of the policy

Procedure of claiming compensation

Notification to the insurer-The insurer has to be notified about the occurrence of any incident immediately.
Filling a claim form-The insurer provides the insured with a claim form which he fills to give details of the risk that has occurred
Investigation of the claim-The insurer arranges to investigate the cause of the incident and to assess the extent of the loss incurred. The insurer is then able to establish whether the insured is to be compensated and if so, for how much.
Payment of claim-On receipt of the report of the assessor, the insurer pays the due compensation to the insured. (Payment of the compensation shows that both the insurer and the insured have agreed on the extent of the loss and the payment is the settlement of the claim)

INSURANCE AND GAMBLING

In most cases, insurance is erroneously taken to be the same as gambling in that small amounts are contributed by many people into a common fund which later benefits just a few people. They are however different and their differences include;

PAST KCSE QUESTONS

1.1995 Describe the procedures that should be followed when taking an insurance policy. 10mks)

2.1996 explain four ways in which the insurance industry promotes the growth of business enterprises. (5mks)

3.1997 Explain four ways in which the insurance industry contributes to the development of Kenya’s economy. (10mks)

4.1998 Discuss various insurance policies under which an insurance company would not compensate the insured in the event of the loss. (10mks)

5.1999 Discuss various insurance policies that the owner of a supermarket may find it useful for the business. (12mks)

6.2000 Explain four benefits of the ‘pooling of risks’ to an insurance company. (8mks)

7.2001 Explain the factors that may make it necessary for an insurance company re-ensure.

8.2002 Explain the meaning of the following terms as used in insurance (10mks)

i) Uberrimae fidei
ii) Indemnity

Third party motor vehicle insurance

iv) Contribution.
v) Subrogation

9.2003 Discuss four circumstances under which an insurance contract may be terminated. (8mks)

10.2004 Explain five benefits that could be enjoyed by a person who decided to take out an endowment policy. (10mks

TOPIC

PRODUCT PROMOTION

Product is an item or service offered to the consumers at a price. Therefore, product promotion is the communication or any activity undertaken to inform the consumers, persuade and remind them to buy the product from the market.

The purpose/Importance of product promotion

It informs the customer of the availability, price, and where to obtain the product to satisfy their wants
It persuade the buyer to buy their products a head of their competitors products in the market
It reminds the customers of the continued existence of a given product in the market
It educate the consumers of the usage of the product to satisfy their needs fully
It informs them on any improvement that has been made on the product
It stimulates the demand of the product being promoted in the market
It brings out the positive features of the product
It opens new market for the product in the environment

Methods of product promotion

Product promotion may be carried out in the following ways:

Personal selling
Advertising
Sales promotion
Publicity

Personal selling

This is a method of promotion where there is an oral presentation in the conversation with the prospective customer. It is done by with the use of salesmen who informs the prospective buyer of all the aspects of the product

Methods of personal selling

Personal selling can be carried out in the following ways;

Through sales person approaching the customers

A case where the sales person approaches the prospective customers after drawing their attention, explaining details of the product and even demonstrating how the product works in order to persuade the customer to buy.

Steps involved in personal selling through sales person

Identify prospective customers who could possibly require the product
Preparing the presentation by gathering all the possible information about the product , as well as designing an appropriate methods that he will be used to present to the customer
Establishing the customers contact, as well as choosing an appropriate time to meet the customer to be. That is the time when the customer may receive him
Arousing the consumers interest in the product by attracting his/her attention through approach and languages, as well as making the prospective customer develop interest in the product
Dealing with the objections on the product which may have been brought about by the customer to be
Closing the sale by inquiring whether the prospective customer will be interested in the product or not. This should be done in a polite manner
Offering after sale service to the customer on the product that has been sold

Shows, trade fairs and exhibitions

This is where the manufacturer of a given product gets a chance to display publicly to the prospective customer to inform them about the product. The prospective customers’ attention is then drawn to the product and more information is given to him about the product at the point where it is displayed.

Advantages of shows, trade fair and exhibitions

It gives the customer an opportunity to compare various products before making a decision on what to buy
It gives the sales person an opportunity to explain in fine details the features of the product to the prospective customers
The manufacturers of the product gets a chance to receive immediate feed back from their customers through interactions during the shows
The number of people visiting their stall to asses their products will help them determine their potential market size for the product

Disadvantages of shows, trade fairs and exhibitions

It is expensive to hire a stall for the exhibition of the product
The sales person may have to explain over and over again for the prospective customers as they may not enter into the stall at the same time
The trade fairs are not frequently organized, therefore an organization rely on it as the only means of product promotion may not succeed

Showrooms

These are large rooms where goods are displayed, especially bulky and durable goods like cars, furniture’s, etc for the customer to see and be informed about them to stimulate their interest in them

The room allows the customer to get more information about the product from the sales person in the showroom

Advantages of showrooms

They enables the seller to get immediate feed back on the product
They enable the customers to get clarification on the product they need to purchase
It is a cheap method of production
It provides an opportunity for the usage of goods to be demonstrated
The information the prospective customer get from the show room is more reliable

Disadvantages of showrooms

They are usually located away from the town centers, making them not be accessible by many
It is expensive to hire showrooms
They require security to protect the goods inside them which may be very expensive
Some prospective customers may tamper with goods in the room while trying to operate them

Free Gifts

A gift is an item given to the customer free of charge after buying a product which it is pegged on or buying products of a given value. The gift may not necessarily be the same as the product bought, but they are meant to encourage the customer to buy more or give the customer opportunity to explore the product given as a gift.

Advantages of free gifts

It enable the customer to enjoy the product given as a gift without paying for it
It persuades the customer to buy more of the product in order to get the gift
It is an additional product, and therefore increases the customers satisfaction
It may help in creating loyalty in the product being promoted

Disadvantages of free gifts

It makes the customer buy including products they didn’t require in order to the said gift
The cost of the product may be very expensive for he customer
Some middlemen may remove the gift and keep or even sell to the customer to maximize profit

Free Sample

This is a product on trial given to the customers freely to influence their demand towards the product. It mainly used when the product is new and the customer may have not known about the existence of the product

Advantages of free sample

It enables the customer try the product before making a decision to buy it
The customer is able to enjoy the product that otherwise he may have not enjoyed
The organization is able to get immediate feedback from the customer about their new product
It enables the organization to acquire more customers for their product

Disadvantages of free sample

Some of those receiving the sample may not come back to buy
It may be an expensive method of promotion especially where many samples are to be given
Goods given for free may reduce the value of goods that may have been sold to earn profit
It is not suitable for expensive products

Circumstances under which personal selling is appropriate

When launching a new product in the market which requires a lot of awareness to the prospective customers to enable them make a choice
When a product is tailored to meet the customer’s needs, as different consumers have different needs, taste and preferences to be addressed.
When demonstration is required on how the product works, especially the technical products
When the organization has the capacity to finance the sales force carrying out the personal selling.
Where the market is concentrated within a given region that can easily be accessible by the task force.

Advantages of personal selling

It is more flexible than any other method for the marketer is able to meet the needs of different people
It enable the prospective customer to know more details about the product before making a decision
The sales person is able to demonstrate the use of the product
The seller is able to get immediate feedback on the product
The seller is able to obtain the personal contact of the prospective buyer
It gives the buyer an opportunity to negotiate the terms of purchase
It takes care of both literate and illiterate prospective customer
The seller is able to persuade the prospective buyer to buy the product

Disadvantages of personal

It is labour intensive and therefore very expensive when the area to be covered is wide method
It is time consuming as it involves explanation and demonstration
It may only target a particular group of people
The seller has to meet the travelling and other expenses involved which may be very expensive
Salespersons may misuse the resources allocated for them, making the target not to be achieved
The process may inconvenience the prospective buyer’s program
It may only cover a given region which may not be wide enough

Advertising

This is the presentation of information about a product through public media such as news papers, radios, billboards, etc

Types of Advertising

Product advertising: – this is a form of advertisement meant to promote a given product or a particular brand of product
Institutional advertising: – this is a form of advertisement meant to improve the image of the institution or organization and not a particular product. It is meant to create confidence in the customers about the institution
Primary demand advertising: – a form of advertisement meant to a new product that has been introduced in the market for the first time. It is mainly to create awareness of the existence of that particular product
Celebrity advertising: – a form of advertisement where a famous/popular person is used to promote a particular product. It is meant to convince those who identify themselves with that personality to buy the product
Informative advertising: – a form of advertisement meant to give the customer more information about the product to enable them make an informed decision
Competitive/persuasive advertising: – a form of advertisement carried out with organizations producing similar product to persuade the customers to buy their products ahead of their competitors
Corrective advertising: – a form of advertising meant to correct a misleading information that may have been given out about the product
Reminder advertising: – a form of advertising meant to remind the customers that the product still exists in the market and is still capable of satisfying their needs.

Advantages/Importance of advertising to the business

It maintain the sales of an already existing product
It create awareness in the customers about a new product in the market
It informs the customers about the changes that may have been made in the product
It helps in building image or reputation of the selling organization
It may increase the volume of the existing sales of a product
It reaches peoples who may have not been reached by the sales person
It compliments the effort of the sales person to enable them achieve their sales objectives
It clears the customers misconception and prejudice about the product
It opens up new markets for the products.

Disadvantages of advertising to the business

It may be costly to the business in terms of money and other resources
It leads to increase in cost of production if at all it has to be done frequently
The cost of the advertisement will always reduce the profit margin of the business
Poorly planned advertisement may negatively affect the business
Misleading advertisement may reduce the level of business operation

Advantages of advertising to the customer

They educate them on the usage of the product
They inform them on the products availability
They guide them on where to get the product
The outlines all the features about the product including prices to the customer
Competitive advertisement may lead to improved quality of goods to benefit the customer
Information on different prices through competitive advertisement makes the customer to benefit from the reduced prices

Disadvantages of advertising to the consumer

The advertisement may not disclose the side effect of the product
The advertising cost may be passed to the consumers through increased price
Some advertisement may persuade customers to buy what they do not require leading to impulse buying
Some customers may buy substandard goods due to misleading advertisement

Advertising media

These are channels or agents through which an advertisement message is conveyed to the target group. They includes both the print and electronic media which includes; newspapers, journals, magazines, posters, bill-boards, brochures’, radio, television, neon signs, etc

Newspaper

These are daily or regularly publications which contains advertisement. They includes, Daily nation, Standard, Taifa Leo, citizen, star, etc

Advantages of newspaper

The can reach areas that other means may not reach
Many people can afford them as they are relatively cheap
They cover a wider geographical area, leading to a wider market
The message on the news paper can last for a longer period of time, making it to reach more customers
The advertisement appearing in the newspaper is readily acceptable by the reader
Colored print makes the advertisement to be more attractive to the reader who in turn gets the information

Disadvantages of the newspaper

Many of them are written in English or Kiswahili, making them to only target those who can read and understand the language
It discriminate against the illiterate group who can not read the information
They have short lifespan as they may be read only on the day it is circulated
It can not be used to focus on a specific target as they are read by almost everybody
Some of the prospective customers are always in a hurry to read the newspaper and may not pay attention to the advertisement
Magazines and Journals

These are periodic publications meant to target a particular class or group of people. They may be published monthly, quarterly, annually, etc. The information reaches the targeted group as they read them

Advantages of magazines and Journals

The specific information for the targeted people can be published
They can be read and re-read before the next publication may the information to last longer and plead with the prospective customer
Their publication is of high quality and colourful, making them to draw the attention of their targeted group easier and passing the information to them
The quality material they are made of makes them to last longer and can be accessed even by those who may have not been around during their publication

Disadvantages of magazines and journals

If the time gap between the publication time and circulation time is wide, the advertisement may fail
They are a bit expensive which makes some of the potential customers not to afford them
The cost of advertising on them may be expensive for the organization
Their circulations may be limited to a small geographical region
The publications may not be available in the vernacular language to reach those who are not able to read either English or Kiswahili

Posters and Billboards

A form of advertising that may contain the information about the product either in words, pictures or both for the customer to see and read.

Advantages of posters and billboards

They are able to convey the information to the large audience, as they are placed in strategic position
Posters are cheap and easy to prepare
The use of different colors makes them to be more attractive and appealing to more audience
It can be used by both literate and illiterate group
The message may last for a longer period of time
Billboards are conspicuous and hence attractive to the audience

Disadvantages of posters and billboards

May be affected by adverse weather condition, especially rain
If not placed strategically, it may not reach the targeted group
Incase destroyed by the passersby, the information may not meet the targeted group
Bill boards are expensive to make and maintain

Transit/transport advertising

A form of advertisement whereby vehicles such as trailers, matatus, buses, etc are used to carry and convey the advertisement message

Advantages of transit advertisement

The message reaches most of the people in the environment
They message last long as the paints always last on the vehicle
Transit vehicles may carry the message a long way to their final destination
It is captivating to the members of the public especially the promotion convoy, hence can easily reach the target

Disadvantages of transit advertisement

During the rush hour, the crowd may hinder some from getting the information
It mainly relay the information to those served by the vehicles
The noise produced by the promotion convoy may be a nuisance to some members of the public

Brochures

These are small pamphlets carrying message and pictures about product being advertised.

Advantages of Brochures

They are easy to carry around as they are small in size
They are effective in meeting the targeted group
Their cost of production is not very high
They can be distributed at different places to meet the targeted group
Can be made attractive by the use of different colours
They have a long life and therefore can be used repeatedly
They can be used to direct others on where to get the product

Disadvantages of Brochures

The information may not reach the illiterate group
They may be ignored by the intended users
They may require frequent updating if many changes are made on the product making it expensive

Radio

This is a channel that allows for the advertised messages to be conveyed through sound to the listeners, with some background music accompanying the message

Advantages of Radio

Different languages may be used to reach different people
It is accessible even to the remote areas that is not covered by other media
One can choose the time to advertise to reach the targeted group
Able to serve many people at the same time
It can be used for both literate and illiterate members of the group
The advertisement can be repeated over and over again according to the advertisers needs
The music accompaniment may attract many people to listen to the information
Can reach even the blind as they are able to hear
The message can be conveyed in different languages

Disadvantages of Radio

Their advertisement does not have any reference
It may be more expensive than the print media
Poor timing may make the message no to reach the targeted group
It may interrupt some programmes to the annoyance of the listener
It short and brief advertisement may be missed by the listeners
It is difficult for the listener to visualize the product

Television (T.V) and Cinema

Television is a form of media advertisement where the written words are combined with motion pictures and sound to pass the information

Cinema is where the advertised messaged is conveyed during film shows in the cinema halls. It may be before or after the movie.

Advantages of Television (T.V) and Cinema

It appeals to most people as it is entertaining
It makes it possible for the demonstration of the use of the product
It is able to reach both the literate and illiterate viewers
The advertisement can be aired over and over again to meet the targeted group
The advertisement may be modified when need arise
It has wide appeal to many people
The message can be conveyed in different languages

Disadvantages of Television (T.V) and Cinema

The cost of advertising through this media is high
The television sets are expensive to acquire, hence many people may not have them
Their uses are limited to places with electricity
The advertisement may not last longer
The time for airing the information may not suit the targeted audience

Neon Signs

This is a form of advertisement where the message is passed to the public through the use of electrical signals transmitted through neon lights. They are usually common in the banks, airlines, jewel shops, etc

Advantages of Neon Signs

The use of different colours makes them very attractive and catch attention of different people
They can be put strategically making them to be visible to many people
Can be used both at night and day
They direct the customer on where the goods are to be found

Disadvantages of Neon Signs

Can only be used where there is electricity
They are expensive to buy and maintain
The message may not easily reach the illiterate

Advertising Agencies

These are businesses that specialize in advertising work and are hired to carry out the functions for other businesses. They are paid a commission for this

Functions of Advertising Agencies

They help the organizations in designing their trade marks, logos and advertising materials
They book space and airtime for their clients in various media
They offer advisory services to their client on selling techniques
They advertise on behalf of their clients
They choose on behalf of their clients the appropriate media to be used

Publicity

This is the mentioning of the product or the organization in the mass media to make it be known to many people. There two types of publicity, that is free publicity (where the payment is not required) and Special featured publicity (where there is payment, for example sponsoring an event in the public)

Advantages of Publicity

It saves the organization money incase of free publicity
It is likely to cover a wider region as the publicity is in the media
The organization may earn credibility due to positive publicity
The information may be received positively by the customers as the message is likely to be more objective
It may improve the competitiveness of the firm

Disadvantages of Publicity

Unfavourable information about the organization may reach the public especially in free publicity
It is irregular and short lived
Might require special occasion or event in order to attract the mass media
The firm does not have control on how the information will appear in the media and the extend of the coverage

Public relations

A process of passing information with an intention of creating, promoting, or maintaining good will and a favourable image of the organization in the public. It involves informing the public about the firm’s achievement and how it is contributing to the community welfare and development, to get more approval of the public

Advantages of public relations

May be used to correct the dented image of the firm
It informs the public about the activities of the firm
Assist in upholding the good image of the firm
It improves the relationship between the firm and its customers

Disadvantages of public relations

It is costly in terms of time and finance involved
The customer may make premature buying arising from the picture created by the firm
Effects may take long before they are actually realized
It may be difficult to evaluate the impact of the message, since the customers are not obliged to respond to it

Point of purchase (Window) display

This is where the items are arranged in the shops strategically, allowing the customers to see them easily. The arrangement is meant to attract the customer’s attention and induce them to buy goods as they pass close to the shop

Advantages of Point of purchase display

May induce the customer to buy the product due to their arrangement
As the customers get in to the shop, they are likely to buy including the other goods that were not being displayed
The customers are able to determine the features of the product with ease
It is relatively a cheaper method of promotion

Disadvantages of point of purchase

The method only work well with the potential customers who are near the shop and not far away
They may also attract thieves especially if the product displayed is of high value
In case the arrangement does not appeal so much to the customers, they may not get into the shop
It may be expensive setting up the display area

Direct mail Advertisement

A form of advertisement which is sent to the potential customers directly in the form of a mail, for example the pricelist being sent to the potential customers

Advantages of direct mail advertisement

It is able to reach the targeted group as they are sent to the potential customer directly
The message may be made to suit the requirement of the specific customer to be
There may be an immediate respond on the message
The potential customers incurs no cost to acquire the information

Disadvantages of direct mail advertisement

Some mails may not get to the intended customers in time
The prospective customer may ignore the advertisement
May not be effective where the customer needs to examine the product
This method may be expensive especially in terms of material and money
It may only appeal to the literate group only

Catalogue

A booklet that gives information about the product that the organization deals in. It gives the description about the product, the picture as well as the prices of the product.

Advantages of catalogue

It may be used to advertise all the products in the organization
The owner/organization has the total control over the catalogue
It gives detailed information about the product
Its colourful nature makes it an attractive promotion tool

Disadvantages of catalogue

It is expensive to produce increasing the cost of production
Change in price may affect the whole catalogue

Guarantee (warranty issue)

An assurance given to the customer that the product will serve as expected if used according to the instructions given by the manufacturer. For the guaranteed period the seller will be willing to maintain repair or replace the product for the customer

Advantages Guarantee

The confidence built in the customer by the guarantee to the customers makes them to buy more products.
It may create the customers loyalty to the product of the firm
The fact that the product can be replaced if it gets spoilt within the period is an advantage to the customer

Disadvantages of guarantee

Repairing or replacing the product may be very costly to the organization
The method may only be suitable for the durable goods
The customer may be tempted to mishandle the good during this period

Discount

This is a reduction in price of the commodity, allowing the buyer to pay less than what he would have paid the goods.

Types of discount

Quantity discount: – Allowed by trader to encourage him/her to buy more quantity of the product being offer
Trade discount: – Allowed to another trader who is buying products for resale to the consumers
Cash discount: – Allowed to the customer to enable him pay promptly for the goods bought

Loss leader: – Selling the price below the market price to entice the customer to buy
Psychological selling: – Playing with the customers psychology in terms of pricing by quoting odd prices such as 999, 199, 99, etc to convince the customer that the price has been reduced
Credit facilities: – where the customer is allowed to take a product for his consumption and pay for it later. This entices the customer to buy more of the product
After sales service: – these are services offered to the buyer after the goods have been bought. They may be in terms of packaging, transportation or installation which may be offered to the customers free of charge. This makes the customer to buy more goods with confidence

Sales promotion

These are activities carried out to increase the sales volume of a business. They are activities out of the ordinary routine of business that is carried out by the seller to increase his sales volume.

The methods of carrying out sales promotion includes all the methods of carrying out product promotion as discussed earlier, that is, shows and trade fair, showrooms, free gifts, free sample, personal selling, advertisement, window display, credit facilities, after sales services, etc

Factors to consider when choosing a promotion method

The cost of the promotion that is whether the company can afford it or not, for some promotion methods are very expensive that may not be easily affordable to the company.
The nature of the product being promoted especially whether it requires demonstration or not. Products which requires demonstration are best promoted through personal selling
The targeted group for the advertisement, on whether they can be reached by that method or not. The promotion method must reach the targeted group, if it has to be effective
The objective that the firm would like to achieve with the promotion, and whether the method is helping them to achieve that particular objective
The method used by the competitor in the market to enable them choose a method that will enable them compete favourably
The requirement of the law concerning product promotion, to enable them not use what the law does not allow

Ethical issues in product promotion

These are rules and regulations to be followed when carrying out promotion to avoid violating other people or businesses right. They include;

Cheating on performance of the product to attract more customers by given them wrong and enticing information about what the product can do.
Cheating on the ingredients of the product by telling them that the product contains a suitable type of ingredient which does not exist just to lure them to buy the product
Not telling them the side effects of the product which may affect them should they continuously use the product due to fear of loosing customer
False pricing, especially a case where they overprice their and later on reduce them slightly just to lure the customer, yet exploit them
Not caring about the negative effect of the product on the environment, which may includes littering of the environment by the posters used for advertisement
Social cultural conflict, especially putting up some forms of advertisement which are considered a taboo buy the community leaving around, such as hanging a billboard of a female advertising inner wears next to a church

Trends in product promotion

The following are some changes that have taken place to improve the product promotion activities

Use of website/internet to advertise product world wide, which has increased the coverage
Encouraging gender sensitivity and awareness in product promotion to bring about gender balance
Use of electronic billboards in advertisement to increase their visibility even at night
Intensifying personal selling by the business to reach more customers
Development of promotion convoys to move from one place to the other with music and dancers to attract more prospective customers
Catering for the rights of the youths when carrying out product promotion and even involving them in carrying out the promotion
Catering for the interest of those with special needs when carrying out advertisement
Advertisement through mobile phones by sending them s.m.s about the product

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October 5, 2025 Maverick John Leave a comment

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