SIMPLIFIED

HISTORY & GOVERNMENT

FORM  ONE

New Syllabus.

CONTENTS.

Chapter 1: Introduction to history and government

 

The meaning of history and government

Sources of history and government

Importance of studying history and government

Review Questions

Chapter 2: The Early Man

Origin of man and his evolution

Uses of early Archeulian tools

Methods of dating fossils

Early man’s cultural practices

Changes Early Man experienced

Review Questions

Chapter 3: Development of Agriculture

Early Agriculture

Early Agriculture in Egypt

Early Agriculture in Mesopotamia

Agrarian Revolution in USA

Food situation in Third World countries

Review Questions

Chapter 4: The people of Kenya upto the 19^th Century

Classification of Kenyan communities

Causes and effects of migration of Kenyan people (Bantu, Nilotes, Cushites)

Review Questions

Chapter 5: Social, Economic and Political organisation of Kenyan Societies in the 19^th Century

Organisation of Bantu (Agikuyu, Ameru, Akamba, Abagusii, Mijiknda)

Organisation of Nilotes (Luo, Nandi, Maasai)

Organisation of Cushites (Somali, Boran)

Review Questions

Chapter 6: Contact between E. Africa and the outside world up to the 19^th Century

Contact by the Early visitors

Development of trade between E. Africa and Asia

How slaves were obtained

The Portuguese at the coast

Oman/Seyyid Said’s rule

The long distance trade

Development of international trade

The spread of Christianity in E. Africa

Review Questions

Chapter 7: Citizenship

The way one can become a Kenyan Citizen

Rights and freedoms of a Kenyan citizen

Responsibilities and elements of a good citizen

Review Questions

Chapter 8: National integration

Meaning and importance of National Integration

Factors which promote and limit National Unity

Conflict and conflict resolution

Review Questions

CHAPTER I.

INTRODUCTION TO HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT.

History as a discipline, originated during the time the early Greek scholars such as Herodotus and Thucydides wrote documents concerning past activities of man. This activity of recording past events developed over time until the period when the written records began being imparted to learners in schools.

In East Africa, the missionaries introduced the first formal schools. It was in these formal schools that history was introduced as a discipline. Since then history has been taught in schools and colleges. History has helped in shaping the people of East Africa intellectually.

The meaning of History

The term “History” comes from a Greek word “Historia” which implies “to enquire, to search or to ask for the truth” and there after report what you have found. History can therefore be defined as “the study or account or story of man’s true events of the past out of his interaction with his environment.”

History is being made from everyday news which concern mankind such that what we regard as news now is treated as history next hour.

It is not easy to record all past events of man. The historian considers only what he thinks is important and ignores what he thinks is not important. He arranges historical happenings in chronological order considering the period events occurred. The events are considered to have occurred before the birth of Jesus Christ (BC) while others occurred after the birth of Christ (AD). In Latin AD implies Anno domini or “the year of our Lord”.

All known un-recorded history is referred to as Pre-history.

Three major areas of study of history are social, political and economic.

 

Social history deals with the cultural practices and traditions of the people. It deals with social institutions such as tribe, clan, age-set and families. Social history also deals with religious beliefs and practices such as sacrifice and mode of worship. It also deals with other cultural aspects such as rights of passage and many other societal values.

Political history deals with wars, leadership, systems of government and settling of disputes.

Economic history deals with things concerning activities such as cultivation, pastoralism, mining, trade, hunting and industry.

 

The characters of historical events

 

All events of history have the following characteristics:

 

1. Historical events should contain elements of truth either from first-hand information or from second-hand information.
2. Historical events mainly dwell on past happenings.
3. All historical events must concern man. This implies that they must somehow be connected with man.
4. Historical information may exist in either written or oral form.
5. All historical events must have evidence for them to qualify to be true.

 

The meaning of government

 

It means the exercise of authority over a political or social unit. It may also imply the practice of ruling or exercising continuous authority over one’s subjects.

 

Any government must have:

Sets of laws or rules to govern the people; specific individuals who ensure that the laid down laws, rules, traditions and customs are observed; specified ways of dealing with those who do not adhere to the laid down laws and regulations and a specified area where the set rules and regulations are exercised.

 

The sources of information on History and Government

 

Historians have been able to obtain historical information through various sources such as:

 

1. a) Written records:

This is recorded information obtained from books, newspapers, journals, magazines and from oral tradition, interviews and observations. It is then stored for use over the years.

Written records are advantageous because they are easily used by people majority of whom are literate, they are more accurate and reliable than the information from other sources, it is cheaper to come up with written records than to get information by use of other sources such as archaeology and linguistics, they store information in a relatively permanent way and they are easily translated into many languages for effective use.

 

 

1. b) Archaeology

This is the study of the material remains of man’s past. It includes the study of man’s weapons, tools, settlements, pottery, skulls, bone and plant remains like grains, and cave paintings. When the remains are escavated, they are carefully examined by the archaeologists and necessary information is obtained.

 

The archaeologists may escavate a place where erosion has exposed a stratum of rock and soil well below the surface, a place where there are partly visible remains or they may be guided by oral traditions to identify the place for instance if the place is orally mentioned for example the Great Zimbabwe and Merowe ruins.

 

The remains exist in the following forms:

• Those made by early man such as weapons, tools, pots and ornaments.
• Unmovable structures such as dwellings, dug wells, tombs and early towns.
• Items which are natural such as bone remains, horns, carbonized seeds or grains.

 

Archaeology has various limitations:

1. It is expensive to use the method to obtain information.
2. It is time consuming especially when one uses the method to locate archaeological sites.

• Weather can affect fossils, for example fossils may decay or change their form.

1. It is difficult to locate archaeological sites.
2. Sometimes people who use this method obtain inaccurate information.
3. The archaeological method cannot be used to obtain recent events and information. Only the study of ancient period can be done by use of this method.

vii)   It is difficult to date fossils and artefacts. A lot of estimation is involved.

 

1. c) Oral tradition

This is the study of the past as revealed by what has been handed down by word of mouth from one generation to another.

 

 

 

In African traditional societies, the elders and court workers acted as the custodians of the history of their community because they passed information concerning their people and their rulers to the young people.

In order for the historian to reconstruct the history of the past by use of oral tradition, he refers to myths, legends, songs, proverbs, poems and to the lists of rulers.

 

Oral traditions have a number of limitations as follows:

1. Information obtained may be exaggerated.
2. Information obtained may be inaccurate or distorted.

• Sometimes the informants may conceal vital information.

1. Obtaining information by use of this method is expensive.
2. The method is time consuming and laborious to use.
3. Information may be omitted or even forgotten due to loss of memory.

• A lot of information on successes and achievement is obtained but very little on failures when this method is used to obtain information concerning African traditional societies.

 

1. d) Linguistics

This is the scientific study and analysis of languages.

It is done to enable the historian to understand cultures and relationship between various language groups.

People who speak related languages are assumed to be either connected or to have ever been in close contact. In East Africa, the study and analysis of languages has helped the historian to trace the origin, migration and settlement of communities.

It has also helped historians to classify and group the people of East Africa and also to learn about their past relations and interactions as well as the common aspects of their social, political and economic organisations.

 

Use of linguistics as a method of reconstructing the past may have the following limitations:

1. All kinds of information may not be possible to obtain because linguistics is only limited to the study of cultures, origins and migrations of communities.
2. Use of this method may lead to obtaining inaccurate information.

• The method itself is expensive especially if one tries to use it to obtain information from far away communities.

1. It is difficult to use this method to estimate the actual time events occurred.
2. This method requires use of highly skilled manpower.
3. Learning other peoples languages may be time consuming and laborious.

 

1. e) Anthropology

This is mainly the study of existing social institutions and relationships. An anthropologist interacts with people to experience their way of life. In so doing he obtains information from the following elements of social organisation:-

Cultures of people and their cultural values, forms of government, religious organisations and beliefs, systems of marriage, family relations, inheritance and also from the material mode of life such as farming, livestock keeping, fishing and industry.

The anthropologists collect data from the people and use it to draw conclusions after analysing it properly.

 

Limitations of using Anthropology as a method of reconstructing history:

1. It can be too expensive to use.
2. It is time consuming and tedious.

• One may obtain inaccurate information if the method is not properly used.

1. This method may require very well trained personnel.
2. It is limited to few aspects of history which includes social aspects and material aspects.
3. One cannot use this method alone to obtain all information. So it is not wholly reliable.

 

1. f) Genetics

It deals with the study of the methods in which certain characteristics are transmitted from parents to their offspring. This method has helped the historian to study the history of the domestication of animals and plants by early man. It has also helped him to understand how new varieties came into being.

The method is mainly scientific and at the same time expensive.

For one to use this method he must be well trained. For example one may be an experienced Botanist. The method may not also be used to extract information from all aspects of man’s activities. It is not easy to obtain very accurate information when using genetics.

In conclusion, out of all the above sources of information on history, written sources are the most reliable and most accurate. However, written sources may have the following limitations:

1. Though recorded, some information may be inaccurate, distorted or exaggerated.
2. Some written records are not readily available when required. For example some records may be available in archives which are far away from people who need the information.
3. Written records are useful and meaningful to people who are literate.
4. Some written records contain inadequate information.
5. Written information may contain biases.
6. Records preserved in foreign languages are difficult to interpret accurately and may call for experts to interpret. This may be expensive to achieve.
7. Written information can easily be misunderstood or misinterpreted.
8. People spend a lot of time when going through written records.
9. People find it expensive to buy books, newspapers and magazines in order to obtain written information.

Why it is essential for people to study History

 

It has become very necessary for people to study history so that people can develop a sense of belonging and also foster national pride. Also in order for them to understand and appreciate their past ways of life. This can help them to predict future events.

To acquire the capacity for critical thinking or reasoning as they analyse historical information and to foster empathy or ability to understand how other people think and feel as well as their roles and positions in society.

The study of history helps people understand the need of having a government and also to appreciate the cultures of other people and thereafter recognise the need of human interdependence.

It helps them to attain a career and acquire employment in various professions such as Administration, teaching and business and in addition attain knowledge because history makes an individual develop interest and pleasure for reading and finding out new information. Lastly, it prepares people for life and the way they should react to future challenges.

 

 

 

 

Why it is important to study Government.

 

People study government to be able to understand and appreciate its system and the way it works. It enhances people to be aware of their rights and responsibilities and to understand the duties of leaders and their subjects and also how various societies have been administered over the years. The study of government enables them to understand the process of law making and the enforcement of law and also to understand issues concerning national budgets, revenue and expenditure.

 

It enables them to understand the roles of the Judiciary, the Legislature and the Executive and finally, it enables them to admire and appreciate careers such as administration and those of judges and lawyers.

 

Review Questions.

 

1. What do you understand by the following:
2. i) History
3. ii) Government
4. Explain the methods historians use to obtain historical information.
5. Give the limitations of:
6. i) Oral tradition
7. ii) Archaeology

iii) Linguistics

4. Give reasons why written records are regarded as the best sources of historical information.
5. Explain why history and government is studied in Kenyan schools and some colleges.
6. What are the limitations of using written records?

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CHAPTER 2

 

THE EARLY MAN.

 

 

How the early man originated.

 

There are three theories which explain the origin of man. These are:

 

1. a) Creation theory

This has its origin in the Bible (The Old Testament).

The book of Genesis says that God created man in his own image and then told him to multiply and fill the earth.

Creation theory is also contained in the Koran which states that the first man named Adam was created by Allah. From Adam’s rib, Allah created his wife, Hawa (Eve).

1. b) The evolution theory

Evolution is the process of gradual change in living organisms.

Evolution theory was formulated by Charles Darwin – in 1859. He recorded the theory in his book entitled “The origin of species”.

According to Darwin, man developed from the Ape-like creatures that were his ancestors many thousands of years ago. He says these ape-like creatures slowly changed over the ages to look more man-like than ape-like.

1. c) Traditional (Mythical) theory

Every traditional community had an explanation of its origin. This explanation was passed from one generation to the other and kept on revolving for ages. For example the Kikuyu myth of origin says that Ngai (God) created Gikuyu (the first man) and then provided him with a wife they called Mumbi.

 

The evolution of man and the stages of his evolution.

 

Evolution is the process of gradual change. Many years ago man began to develop from ape-like creatures. At first he walked on all fours but later he used his hind limbs as legs and he stood upright.

The early man first originated and lived in Africa. It is later when some of them spread into Europe, Asia and America.

East Africa is very rich in archaeological sites, some of which are: Rusinga Island, Njoro river cave, Olorgesaille and Fort Ternan in Kenya. Also Kondora Irangi and Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania.

Archaeological findings show that man evolved through the following stages:

Dryopithecus Africanus (Proconsul)

The Dryopithecus skull was found in Africa by Mary Louis Leaky. His skull and limb bones were escavated on Rusinga Island and he resembled apes more than he resembled man.

Dryopithecus had the following physical and cultural features.

1. He walked on all fours
2. He had long teeth

• He ate flesh and fruits

1. He used limbs as arms
2. He hunted and gathered.

 

Dryopithecus existed about 20 – 25 million years ago and lived in the East African forest.

 

Ramapithecus (Kenya pithecus):

Dr. Leakey escavated these fossils at Fort Ternan near Kericho

Ramapithecus had the following physical and cultural features:

1. He had massive jaws
2. He had grinding teeth

• He resembled apes more than man

1. He had smaller canines than those of apes.

 

Ramapithecus existed in the East African grasslands 12 to 15 million years ago.

 

Australopithecus (Zinjanthropus):

Their fossils were first escavated in South Africa

Later fossils of these creatures were found at Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania and they were closer to modern man.

These hominids had the following physical and cultural features.

• They had grinding teeth
• Their bodies were hairy
• They were short
• They had low forehead and deep set eyes.
• They had a small brain capacity which was a third of that of modern man.
• They walked in upright posture.
• They relied on fingers to acquire food.
• They ate flesh and fruits.
• They made and used simple stone tools.
• They learnt that they could use stone tools for defence against other animals.
• They hunted and gathered.

Australopithecines were living in Africa about 2 to 7 million years ago and existed in several species such as Australopithecus Afarensis, Australopithecus Africanus, Australopithecus Robustus and Australopithecus Boisei who was related to robustus.

 

Homo Habilis

The skull of Homo Habilis was escavated at Olduvai gorge in Tanzania and at Kobi Fora near lake Turkana

Homo Habilis means “handy man” or “man with ability” or “practical man”.

Man at this evolution stage had the following cultural and physical features:

1. He used his hands to grasp objects.
2. He had a large brain capacity (680cc)

• He made useful tools from stones and sticks.

1. He could control his hands by use of his brain.
2. He hunted and gathered.
3. He resembled man more than apes. He is therefore regarded as a true ancestor of man.

• He communicated through elementary language and lived in Africa about one and half million years ago.

 

Homo Erectus

Homo Erectus is also referred to as ‘upright man’.

He was more man-like than Ape-like.

His remains were escavated in Ethiopia.

The following were his physical and cultural features:

1. He had upright walking posture.
2. He was more intelligent than the earlier man like apes.

• He had a higher brain capacity (1000 cc).

1. He was able to make stone and bone weapons. He made Acheulian tools using Levallois technique of organising flakes into small pieces.
2. He learnt how to make fire.
3. He developed speech.

• He painted pictures on the walls of his cave dwellings.
• He hunted and gathered.

1. Home erectus existed during the middle stone age period.

 

 

 

Rhodesian man

His skull was escavated in Zambia, formerly known as Northern Rhodesia.

He was closer to the modern man than Homo erectus.

The following were his physical and cultural features:

1. He walked with long strides.
2. He made tools made of stone.

• He had a well developed brain almost the size of that of modern man.

1. He walked on two legs and he had an upright posture although his forehead was sloping backward.
2. He hunted and gathered.

 

Neanderthal man

He was closer to the modern man than the Rhodesian man.

His fossils were escavated in Neander valley in Germany and in several other sites in Europe.

The following were his physical and cultural features:

1. He hunted and gathered.
2. He made tools and weapons from stone.

• He walked in an upright posture.

1. He was heavily built.
2. His brain capacity was high and in some cases larger than that of modern man.
3. He fed on meat from the wild animals he hunted.

 

Cro-Magnon

His fossils were found in Western Europe and he was taller than modern man. He existed between 10,000 to 50,000 years ago.

He had the following physical and cultural features:

1. He made and used delicate microlithic tools, which were well refined.
2. He hunted and gathered.

• He lived in caves.

1. He used fire to warm himself and roast meat.
2. He painted pictures on the walls of caves.
3. His eye-brow range was thicker than that of modern man.

 

Cro-Magnon lived during the Middle Stone age period and he used fire to cook. The tools he used were reasonably improved. The caves he lived in were painted.

 

 

 

 

Homo Sapiens

Homo Sapiens implies “thinking man” or “intelligent man”. He used advanced Acheulian tools and also manufactured other better tools such as daggers, side scrapers and chisels.

Homo sapiens also learnt to make better tools by use of Levallois – technique and later developed the microlith industry. He existed during the New Stone age. The following were the physical and cultural features of man during Homo Sapiens stage:

1. He tamed and kept livestock.
2. He cultivated.
3. He buried the dead.
4. He settled in villages.
5. He began fishing by use of bone harpoons.
6. He developed government.
7. He started religion.
8. He began simple industry which made beads out of seeds, bones and egg shells and also pottery, basketry and painting.
9. He made better clothes from skins by knitting them with bone needles.
10. He built huts made of thatch and mud.

 

Things which enable the archaeologists to study the origin of man.

 

The study of early man has not been easy but inorder to facilitate it the archaeologists have tried to use the tools early man used for example the “Acheulian tools” such as scrapers, hand axe, arrow heads, choppers, spear heads and “Microliths” tools such as fishing harpoons, bone needles, arrow heads, sickles and blades.

They have also used remains of garments or skin clothes, the weapons early man used, the remains of beads, the shelter of the early man, grains and food remains and also the cave paintings or art work as well as traces of the remains of fire e.g. charcoal and carbonised seeds. By use of all these the archaeologist has been able to make useful conclusions on man’s origin and his evolution.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Uses of the early Archeulian tools

 

Archeulian tools were made from several materials. They were sharper than those used before. Examples of these types of tools were arrow-heads, axes and spear-heads.

Archaeulian tools were used for digging roots, skinning animals, killing animals, grinding or pounding vegetables, scrapping animal skins and for breaking the bones of animals.

 

Methods used when dating fossils by the archaeologists

 

Carbon 14 tests –                   Archaeologists use this to determine the amount of Carbon 14 in an object because the older the remains, the less carbon 14 they have.

Potassium – Argon test –        This is mainly used to date the volcanic ash and also the fossils which may be escavated in the volcanic rocks. It can only be used to date artefacts which are old (about 300,000 years and above).

Paleomagnetic dating method – This method is used to date fossils upto

10,000 years of age.

Stratigraphy               –           It is used to date fossils lying between layers of

sedimentary rocks.

 

Some notable archaeologists in E. Africa who used some of these methods to date fossils were Dr. Leakey, Dr. Freeman, Dr. Posnansky, Mr. Chittick, and Mr. Kirkman.

 

Why early man made tools and weapons

 

• For defence against other wild animals
• For hunting and gathering for example animals and fruits respectively
• For cultivating especially during the new stone age when he

domesticated plants

• For exchanging with other items.
• Due to his curiosity to find out things.

 

The items early man used for making tools and weapons he used were stone, Bone, Horn, Flint, Wood and sticks. These were used to make a wide range of items which early man became specialised in.

 

 

The earliest industries established by early man were tool making, weapon making, cloth making, pottery, weaving and basketry. Tools and weapons were made in the industries collectively called the Oldowan Industries, Lupemban industries, the Acheulian industries, the Still Bay Industries, the Mousterian Industries and the Microliths industries.

 

The Oldowan tools included choppers and flakes. The Acheulian tools included the hand-axes, spear – heads, arrow-heads, cleavers, knives, daggers and scrappers.

 

Early men preparing a pit trap.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The divisions of the culture of the early man and his cultural practices and economic practices

 

The divisions of the culture of the early man are:

1. The Old Stone Age sometimes referred to as Early Stone Age or Lower Palaeolithic.
2. The Middle Stone Age sometimes referred to as Middle Palaeolithic.
3. The New Stone Age sometimes referred to as the late stone age or upper Palaeolithic.

 

1. The old stone age:

Culture and economic practices

Man lived in small groups. He slept on trees and caves for fear of attack by wild animals. He walked naked and his body was covered with hair. Early man ate raw meat, birds, eggs and insects. He made simple stone tools such as hand axes and flakes using levallois technique. Finally, he hunted wild animals and gathered fruits and roots for food.

 

1. The middle stone age:

Culture and economic practices

Man lived in caves. He discovered fire and lit it on the doors of caves to scare away wild animals. Man also began making and wearing clothes made of skins. He also began cooking food and roasting meat and roots.

Early man started trapping animals using pits and painting pictures of animals he hunted on the walls of caves. His language developed and finally he improved the quality of the tools he made by making them smaller, lighter, sharper, thinner and more convenient to use.

 

Stone tools early man made.

 

 

 

 

 

The Middle Stone Age men painting pictures on rocks

Why the discovery of fire was useful to early man

This discovery was important for the following reasons:

1. Man warmed himself with it when it was cold.
2. He used it to cook and therefore soften his food as well as remove poison from vegetables.
3. He used it to light the caves where he spent the nights.
4. Man used it to scare wild animals which posed a threat to him.
5. He used fire to harden the tips of the tools he used such as spears and arrows.
6. Fire assisted man when hunting because he lit it to burn bushes where animals were hiding and they escaped towards swamps and caves where he would easily kill them.
7. He used fire to clear bushes close to his cave dwellings.
8. Man later used fire to harden pots made of clay.
9. The Homo Sapiens used it to clear bushes for cultivation.
10. It improved mans food by improving flavour, improving nutrition, removing poison, softening food and cooking food.

 

1. c) The New Stone Age:

            Culture and economic practices

The new Stone Age is sometimes referred to as the Upper Paleolithic period. In this period man made better microlith tools such as blades and arrow-heads. He then made composite tools such as fish harpoons and bone needles.

Man established permanent settlements and he began leading a settled life. Man then began decorating his body by use of red ochre, beads and bangles made of eggshells. He also began simple industry which included weaving, pottery, basketry and spinning.

Man developed religion and began performing religious rites and ceremonies to influence natural forces like drought, death, earthquakes and rain. He developed governmental institutions, leading to establishment of early governments.

Man began fishing using harpoons. He made better shelter such as houses made of mud and thatch. He then domesticated animals such as cats, dogs, sheep, cows, goats and chicken and finally, he began cultivating and this was the beginning of farming.

 

 

 

 

 

 

The changes early man experienced during his evolution.

 

The changes from early man to modern man took a very long period. Each of the changes man experienced was very important because it was the basis of his future life. It is due to these changes that modern man is at the level he is today.

Early man experienced the following important changes which helped in modernising his culture and way of life.

• Increase in brain capacity.
• Development of upright posture.
• Walking on two legs instead of walking on all fours.
• Holding objects by use of front limbs (hands).
• Continuous improvement of tools and weapons.
• He discovered fire.
• He learnt to domesticate animals and plants. This was the beginning of agriculture.
• He improved his shelter as time went on.
• He established religion.
• He formed government.
• He started simple industry such as weaving, pottery and basketry.
• He began weaving clothes made of skins.

All the above changes helped early man to evolve to the modern man who is capable of making many inventions.

 

Review Questions.

 

1. Identify the theories that explain the origin of human beings.
2. Why is Africa regarded to as the home of early man?
3. Discuss the economic and cultural activities which took place during the following:
4. Old Stone Age
5. Middle Stone Age

• Late Stone Age

4. How was fire used during the Middle Stone Age?
5. Discuss the cultural and economic practices of early man during the following evolution stages:
6. Homo Habilis
7. Homo erectus

• Homo Sapiens

6. Draw a map of East Africa and indicate all the archaeological sites and then describe the pattern of the distribution of these sites.

CHAPTER 3.

 

DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

 

 

Early Agriculture.

 

Early agriculture developed when man domesticated animals such as sheep, cows and goats, and when he started growing crops like wheat, barley, figs and vegetables.

At first early man was mainly engaged in hunting and gathering. Later man accidentally realised that animals and plants could be domesticated and he could easily obtain food even when weather conditions were unfavourable. Man took control of the animals which were friendly and he had to feed them.

Man therefore put up permanent settlements. It is this settled lifestyle which enabled man to realise that some of the grains which fell near his homestead germinated and grew up to produce more grains. This realisation made man to start planting grains near his homestead.

Early agriculture developed in a number of countries such as Mesopotamia, China, Ethiopia, Egypt, India, Sudan, Palestine, Thailand, Peru, Iran, Mexico, Turkey and Israel.

Before the domestication of animals and plants, early man’s food was Edible roots, Meat, from wild animals, Birds eggs, Honey, Vegetables, Wild fruits and nuts. When man domesticated animals they provided him with meat, milk, skins for making clothing’s and comfort.

 

Factors which encouraged the development of early agriculture

 

Man started agriculture because there was need for reliable food supply. The invention of agricultural tools encouraged man to cultivate bigger plots of land. Rapid increase in population also encouraged people to increase their farmland in order to get more food which was enough for the growing population.

The beginning of settled life made man to stay in one place until the crops matured. This in turn contributed to the production of surplus food which encouraged trade and therefore need to produce more.

After man settled there was realisation that friendly animals could be tamed easily and plants could be grown near homesteads. This later brought about specialisation even on other economic activities like making of hoes, pots and knives which boosted agricultural production.

 

The effects of the development of early agriculture to man’s life

 

The development of early agriculture had great impact on man’s life as follows:

1. Adequate food was obtained resulting to an increase in human population.
2. Man was able to specialise on other activities for example weaving, pottery and cloth making.

• Man was able to establish permanent settlements.

1. Urbanisation resulted where man settled.
2. Socio-political institutions which later gave rise to governments developed.
3. Production of surplus food led to development of trade.

• Man developed religious beliefs. He performed religious rites and ceremonies in order to influence phenomena like drought and floods.

 

Factors which favoured the development of early agriculture (crop growing) in ancient Egypt

 

Egypt was one of the countries of the world where early agriculture took place. This was due to the presence of indigenous crops like wheat and barley which were easily grown along the Nile valley. The fertile soils (silt) were deposited along the river valley during floods and this favoured growth of crops.

The invention of writing (Hieroglyphics) helped much in keeping farm records. Also the introduction of irrigation by use of River Nile boosted agriculture. The basin and shadoof irrigation methods were discovered.

The invention of the calendar helped in marking seasons and when the Nile flooded. The introduction of the ox-drawn wooden plough enabled more land to be ploughed.

Finally, the political stability in Egypt enabled agricultural activities to be conducted and also other activities such as trade because the Arabian Desert, the Nubian Desert and the Mediterranean Sea protected Egypt from foreign invasion.

 

The economic impact of early agriculture in Egypt

 

Early agriculture in Egypt had the following consequences:

• It led to increase in food production.
• It led to increase in trade.
• It led to division of labour.
• It led to specialisation.
• It contributed to the emergence of small skill industries such as weaving, basketry and pottery.
• It led to improved methods of cultivation for example irrigation and use of the plough.
• It led to urbanisation
• It resulted to the emergence of a class of wealthy people in Egypt.
• More land was cultivated.

 

Why the early agriculture began along the river valleys in Egypt and Mesopotamia

 

Early agriculture began along the river valleys of Egypt and Mesopotamia because:

The rivers provided reliable water for irrigation and also carried rich soils (silt) and deposited it on riverbanks where farmers planted their crops.

Rivers provided means of transport. People had established settlements along river valleys because Egypt and Mesopotamia are in desert zones. Those people planted crops on the riverbanks.

 

The factors which favoured the development of the early agriculture in Mesopotamia

 

Like in Egypt, the following factors favoured the development of early Agriculture in Mesopotamia:

1. a) Invention of the plough.
2. b) Introduction of irrigation.
3. c) Fertile soils (silt) which were deposited along riverbanks.
4. d) Establishment of permanent settlements.
5. e) Invention of writing which enabled farmers to keep records.

 

The impact of the development of the early agriculture in Mesopotamia

 

Early agriculture in Mesopotamia led to specialisation on other activities such as pottery and weaving. It led to division of labour. Some people became cultivators while others became livestock keepers.

It also led to the introduction of better farming tools and increase in food production.  A class of wealthy people emerged. It contributed to the emergence of urban centres along the Euphrates and Tiger valleys.

There were improved methods of cultivation for example use of the plough. It led to increased trade and also encouraged development of cottage industries. Finally, population increased as a result of increase in food production.

Crops which were domesticated along Tigris and Euphrates River valley in Mesopotamia

 

The crops which were domesticated were wheat, barley, figs, olives, vegetables and vines. The first crops to be domesticated were wheat and barley. The cultivation of barley and wheat spread to Egypt later.

The invention of the ox-drawn plough helped in the cultivation of large areas of land while the invention of the seed drill made the planting of seeds to be easy.

 

The Agrarian Revolution in Britain.

 

Agrarian Revolution is the change in methods of cultivation and livestock rearing (agriculture). Britain was the first country to experience Agrarian Revolution. This change in Britain was brought mainly by the invention and use of machines.

The Agrarian Revolution was also speeded by use of farm inputs for example fertilizers, pesticides and curatives for livestock diseases. This change reduced manual labour in farms in Britain. However, food production increased.

 

The agricultural practices in Britain before the Agrarian Revolution were:-

i)           Shifting cultivation – land was cultivated for a number of years until the soil got exhausted. It was then abandoned and the owner went to look for another virgin land.

1. Small scale farming – crops were planted on small plots and there was little harvest.

• Subsistence farming (peasant farming) – the crops grown were for human consumption and not for sale.

1. Broadcasting (scattering) of seeds
2. Strip system or open field system – farmland was split into small plots called strips.
3. Inter cropping – a number of different crops were planted on the same plot at the same time.

• Use of simple agricultural implements e.g. hoes and digging sticks

It is important to note that the open field system hindered full utilisation of land because the exhausted land was left to fallow. The road carts used and the footpaths used by people wasted a lot of land.

 

 

There was time wastage as people travelled long distances to go and work in their scattered strips. It was also not possible to use machines to prepare the small strips. Livestock rearing was discouraged due to constant disease infections and shortage of cattle feeds during winter.

 

The factors, which lead to the Agrarian Revolution in Britain

 

The Agrarian Revolution in Britain was caused by increase in human population which led to high demand for food. The development of new farming tools and machinery for example threshing machines and the seed drill led to enlargement of farms.

Industrial Revolution contributed because industrialisation provided the agricultural sector with inputs and markets. Replacement of open field system by enclosure system enabled farmers to improve their property without being hindered by neighbours.

Development of new methods of breeding livestock increased output while the development of agricultural research contributed to improved soils and crop yields.

Development of scientific methods such as food preservation by means of canning and refrigeration encouraged farmers to increase production. Finally, land consolidation enabled land to be properly utilised because it increased farm sizes and therefore encouraged use of machines.

 

The Agricultural changes which occurred in Britain during the Agrarian Revolution

 

The high demand for food in Britain brought about the following agricultural changes:

1. Land was consolidated and people were forced to fence it.
2. New methods of farming for example crop rotation, cross-breeding, use of farming machines and use of fertilisers and pesticides were introduced.

• New crops like potatoes were introduced.

1. A variety of farm tools were invented for example seed-drills ploughs and threshing machines.
2. The fallow system of farming was discouraged.
3. The poor sold their land to the rich and they were left with no farmland.

 

 

 

 

The effects of Agrarian Revolution in Britain

 

1. Food production increased due to the enclosure system, better farming methods and use of machines and this gave rise to a rapid increase in population.
2. It also led to expansion of local and international trade due to increase in agricultural surpluses.
3. The use of new improved farming methods led to food security in Britain.
4. There was diversification of agriculture as a result of introduction of new crops such as potatoes and citrus fruits.
5. The agricultural research findings led to the development of exotic livestock breeds like Friesian and better farming methods such as crop rotation and use of fertilizers.
6. There was improved standards of living and high life expectancy due to production of enough food.
7. The price of the land in Britain went up due to Agrarian Revolution.
8. It contributed to the improvement of transport and communication facilities.
9. It also contributed to the emigration of Britons abroad for example to U.S.A. and South Africa.
10. Agrarian Revolution provided the newly established industries with raw materials and labour.
11. The poor were displaced by the rich leading to rural-urban migration and hence expansion of urban centres.
12. Establishment of large scale farming in Britain replaced subsistence farming.
13. Agrarian Revolution in Britain gave rise to class. There was a class of rich landlords and a class of the poor land less people.

 

The Agrarian Revolution in U.S.A. before 18^th Century.

The British citizens who were displaced after the introduction of the enclosure system in Britain migrated to the USA and introduced new methods of farming.

The immigrants introduced different varieties of crops and animal breeds from Europe. They used slave labour in their farms to work in the cotton, tobacco and maize plantations.

The development of agriculture in USA before 1800 was facilitated by the following factors:

i)           The climate of U.S.A. was suitable for agriculture. Farmers planted cotton, tobacco, wheat, and maize and also kept livestock.

1. Europeans who migrated into U.S.A. led to population increase and high demand for food. At first they relied on food from Britain.

• A large number of enterprising Europeans settled in U.S.A. and tried to make a living through agriculture.

1. Availability of indigenous crops like yams and beans contributed to the development of agriculture in U.S.A.
2. Rivers in U.S.A. such as river Colorado, Sacramento and Arkansas provided water for irrigation.
3. Europeans emigrants introduced new methods of farming in U.S.A. such as crop rotation, use of fertilizers and inter breeding.

• Introduction of new crops promoted development of agriculture.
• There existed suitable soils for different types of crops.

1. Slave labour was available to work in the European farms in U.S.A.

 

The Agricultural practices in U.S.A. before the Agrarian Revolution.

The indigenous inhabitants of USA were the Red Indians. They were subsistence farmers who grew crops such as cotton, yams, beans, potatoes, cassava, tobacco and maize. When the British immigrants arrived in USA they found that the Red Indians were cultivating and applying the following agricultural practices:

• Shifting cultivation
• Small scale farming
• Broadcasting of seeds
• Use of simple agricultural implements
• Inter-cropping.

 

 

 

The British immigrants then introduced the new methods of farming which included plantation farming which was a form of large-scale farming.

 

The factors that led to the Agrarian Revolution in U.S.A.

 

–        The introduction of the enclosure system in Britain forced the landless to migrate to various parts of USA. Ownership of private land was legalised and this helped to promote agriculture.

• The introduction of slave labour ensured adequate supply of labour for farming.
• Farming land was available for cultivating crops such as wheat, tobacco and cotton. Wasteland was also reclaimed.
• The increased demand for agricultural raw materials by Europeans for use in their industries encouraged development and expansion of agriculture. The textile industries in Britain for example demanded cotton from USA.
• The USA government recognised individual land ownership. This encouraged settler farming. Farmers were also supported by the government by being provided with aid which enabled them to turn to large scale farming.
• The land was suitable for different crops such as tobacco, maize, cotton and wheat.
• The cotton gin was invented in 1793 by Eli Whitney. This led to increase in cotton production especially in southern USA because it separated seeds from fibre, made threads and weaved cloth.
• Improved transport and communication led to increase in crop production because the produce reached the market in time.
• The mechanisation of agriculture encouraged establishment of big plantations. For example John Deere invented the steel plough therefore easing cultivation.
• Agricultural research facilitated the Agrarian Revolution in USA because new varieties were introduced in the area of livestock and crop production.
• Introduction of new methods of food preservation such as canning and refrigeration encouraged farmers to increase yields because perishable foods could be preserved in the area and be exported.
• Increase in population created demand for food which contributed to increase in food production and therefore expansion of agriculture to satisfy the internal and external market.
• The introduction of new methods of controlling animal and plant diseases led to increased production.
• The division of USA into farming zones enabled crops to be grown where the climate was favourable for each particular crop. Farmers established the corn belt, the cotton belt, the wheat belt and livestock zones.

 

The effects of the Agrarian Revolution in USA.

 

As food production increased there was also increase in population. Agrarian Revolution in USA encouraged and promoted export trade with agricultural products. It encouraged and accelerated the trans-atlantic slave trade in a bid to acquire labour for use in plantations.

It also contributed to growth of industries in Europe hence industrial revolution because it provided Europe with raw material for her industries. New and better farming methods such as crop rotation, use of fertilizers and planting in rows were introduced.

Transport and communication was improved through establishment of roads, railways and water transport. Improved seeds and livestock breeds were introduced giving rise to improved agricultural output. The standard of living of the people of USA was improved. Scientific research was highly encouraged in order to come up with better livestock breeds.

Many parts of USA were opened up for farming and for settlements. There was migration of people from rural areas to urban areas leading to expansion of towns. There was an increase in food production and diversification of agriculture through introduction of new crop and animal breeds.

Agrarian Revolution in USA encouraged scientific inventions and discoveries such as the invention of the steel plough and the refrigeration facilities. It encouraged many Europeans to come and settle in USA because land was getting scarce in Europe and many Europeans were becoming landless.

 

Food Situation in Africa and The Rest of the Third World.

 

The term “Third World” refers to the developing countries in Africa, South America and Asia. Majority of the third world countries were formerly under colonial rule.

Developing countries are not as industrialised as the developed countries such as Japan, Britain and USA. Almost all developing countries suffer from acute food shortages.

 

 

 

 

Why many countries in Africa, Asia and South America suffer from acute food shortage

 

1. There are unreliable climatic conditions for example some countries experience too much rain or too little rain resulting to floods and drought. For example India has experienced floods several times while African countries lying along the Sahara desert experience drought.

 

Problems of floods in Africa.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

2. There is a rapid population growth. Birth rate has increased. This has outstripped the rate of agricultural production therefore making it difficult for the country to produce enough food for the ever growing population.
3. Africans in particular have placed more emphasis on cash crop production ignoring the importance of subsistence crops. They have even ignored planting drought resistant crops such as cassava, arrow roots, yams and sweet potatoes.
4. Inadequate transport and communication facilities hinder marketing of agricultural products and even distribution of food.
5. Political instability brought about by civil strife hinders the development of agriculture. This has been experienced in Uganda, Sudan, Somalia and Democratic Republic of Congo.

 

 

 

 

 

Rebels preparing for a strike.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

6. Poor storage facilities as well as shortage of storage facilities lead to food wastage. A lot of grains are destroyed by weevils and rats.
7. Importation of food and dependence on foreign food aid hinder those who strive to improve the agricultural output.
8. Scarcity of capital makes it difficult for developing countries to mechanise their agricultural sector. Farmers are also unable to purchase farm inputs such as fertilizers and chemicals for controlling pests.
9. Poor farming methods such as inter-cropping result to low agricultural output. Also many farmers do not apply fertilizers on their farms. As a result they harvest very little.
10. Natural calamities such as locust and army worm invasion, hailstones and also wild animals such as monkeys reduce yields.
11. Land tenure system affect food production especially where a few people are land owners and yet they don’t make it into full use.
12. The high rate of poverty in many countries make people to experience food shortage even when food is available elsewhere because they cannot be able to buy it.
13. Negative attitudes towards certain foodstuffs have made people to abandon growing these crops. For example in some areas of Kenya Cassava is associated with people who are poor. The rich will not grow it.
14. Poor economic planning and poor marketing policies contribute to acute food shortages.
15. Sometimes hoarding and smuggling of food lead to acute shortages. This is because all the food is taken away and the country is left in short of food.
16. Yields have also been affected by diseases and pests which affect crops. Livestock diseases and pests also kill many farm animals.
17. There has been an acute shortage of labour due to rural urban migration of people. This has also reduced yields.
18. HIV/AIDS has caused death and also weakened many able bodied productive people who could engage in farming.

Ways countries with food problems have attempted to solve them.

 

Countries with food shortages have tried to improve soil fertility through crop-rotation, cross breeding and through use of chemical fertilizers. Research stations have been established to improve food production.

Large scale and small-scale irrigation schemes have been established and idle land is being reclaimed. Swamps have been drained and crop growing has been established.  Diversified agriculture is being encouraged to replace the monoculture economy.

Farmers are provided with financial assistance in form of loans. Marketing facilities have been improved to encourage disposal of surplus food while farmers have been motivated through raising of the prices of food crops from time to time.  Through research, chemicals to control pests and plant diseases have been introduced.

Many countries are engaged on consolidating land to encourage individual land tenure. Farmers are from time to time encouraged to grow draught resistant crops such as yams, sweet potatoes, onions and cassava. At the same time extension services have been provided to farmers.

The African, Asian and South America leaders as well as the international community members are encouraging political stability in order to encourage investment in agriculture and increase in agricultural yields.

Finally, transport and communication is being improved through establishment of rural access roads to enable transportation of foodstuffs.

 

 

 

 

The face of hunger in Africa.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The impact of acute food shortages in Africa.

 

1. Death rate has increased especially in famine stricken areas.
2. Dependency on imported food has increased.

• Food prices rise sharply due to high demands and shortages.

1. Famine stricken people blame their government when they fail to get relief food. This attitude may cause civil unrest and national political instability.
2. Famine causes people to wonder from place to place looking for food leading to social interactions especially by people who meet in the market places.
3. There is a very high degree of dependency on foreign aid and grants from donor countries.

• There is migration of people from drought and famine striken areas to town and to other places where food can be obtained.
• There are rapid outbreaks of deficiency diseases.

1. It encourages increase in crime as social evils such robbery and prostitution.
2. Acute food shortages breed hatred between those who are rich and the poor.
3. In areas with acute food shortages, malnutrition has retarded normal   growth of children and caused high child mortality.

 

 

Review Questions.

 

1. What factors enabled early agriculture to develop?
2. Describe the development of the early agriculture in Egypt and Mesopotamia.
3. What were the benefits of the domestication of animals and plants to the early man?
4. Identify the impact of the development of early agriculture in Egypt and Mesopotamia.
5. How did the Agrarian Revolution in Britain contribute to the Agrarian Revolution in USA?
6. a) Explain the causes of food shortages in the developing countries.
7. b) How have the governments concerned tried to rectify the problems of food shortages in the developing countries?

CHAPTER 4.

 

THE PEOPLES OF KENYA UP TO THE

19^TH CENTURY.

 

Kenya communities can be classified into three linguistic groups namely the Bantu, the Nilotes and the Cushites. They migrated into Kenya and came into contact with the earliest inhabitants who were of the Khoisan stock.

 

Communities of Kenya.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Classification of Kenya communities.

 

1. a) Bantu

The term ‘Bantus’ refers to people who speak related languages. These people call Man ‘Mtu’ and their origin is Zaire (formerly known as Congo).

From their original homeland, they migrated slowly eastwards until they reached and settled in Kenya. The Bantu may be split into two categories:

1. i) The Eastern Kenya Bantu

This category includes the Akamba, Kikuyu, Ameru, Embu, Taita, Giriama, Kombe, Chonyi, Digo, Rabai, Jibana, Pokomo, Duruma, Kauma and Ribe.

From Congo forest they reached Mt. Kilimanjaro and moved to Taita hills where they dispersed in different directions. Those who went and settled at Shungwaya were later forced to migrate into the interior of Kenya following the course of river Tana by the Oromo. A few such as the Mijikenda were left at the Coast.

1. ii) The Western Kenya Bantu

This category includes the Abagusii, Abaluhyia, Abakuria, Abasuba and the Abakhene. This group of people settled in western Kenya. Some like the Abagusii entered Kenya from Uganda.

1. b) Nilotes

The Nilotes migrated into Kenya from Sudan but they passed through Uganda.

They may be split into three categories:

 

1. i) The River-Lake Nilotes

This category includes the Luo who live on the shores of Lake Victoria. They migrated from south-eastern Sudan in the Bahrar – el -Ghazal region and entered Uganda. Later they left Uganda and moved into Kenya.

1. ii) The Plain Nilotes

This category includes Samburu, Maasai, Karamojong, Teso and Turkana. They entered Kenya from Southern Ethiopia and passed along the shores of Lake Turkana.

iii) The Highland Nilotes

This category includes the Nandi, Keiyo, Tugen, Marakwet and Kipsigis. They migrated from North-West of Lake Turkana in Ethiopia.

 

 

 

1. c) Cushites

The Cushites entered Kenya from the North Eastern direction. They were coming from the horn of Africa which was their original homeland.

The Cushites may be split into two categories:

1. i) The Eastern Cushites

This category includes the Oromo, Somali, Rendile, Gabbra, Shangilla and Burji.

1. ii) The Southern Cushites

These migrated into Kenya from the Ethiopian Highlands. They went southwards and settled between Kenya and Northern Tanzania.

This category includes the Sanye, Dahallo and Boni living at the mouth of River Tana.

 

The causes and effects of the migration of the Bantu communities (e.g. Kikuyu, Kamba, Meru and the Mijikenda)

 

1. a) Causes of migration

• Over population
• Civil wars or internal wars
• External attacks
• Need to move for adventure
• Need for better pastures for their livestock
• Draught and famine
• Need for cultivable land
• Outbreaks of diseases or epidemics
• Knowledge of iron smelting and making of superior iron weapons encouraged the Bantu people to migrate

 

1. b) Effects of migration

There was assimilation of communities the Bantu people came across e.g. the Southern Cushites were assimilated by the Bantu who came into contact with them. The Kikuyu assimilated the Athi, Dorobo and Gumba.

Intermarriages with other communities occurred. For instance, the Kikuyu intermarried with the Kamba and Maasai.

New political institutions developed for instance the institution of ‘Muthamaki’ among the Kikuyu. Bantu communities borrowed the cultural practices of the people they came across. The Kikuyu for example borrowed the cultural practices like circumcision of the Gumba and the Athi. They also borrowed the age-set system.

Migration accelerated wars with other communities. Some communities were displaced after being conquered and made to disperse. The Bantu communities interacted with people of other linguistic groups through trade, raids and marriages.

There was enrichment of language through word borrowing. Some Bantu communities were forced to change their economic way of life for example to change from cultivators to pastoralists.

 

Why the Nilotic communities migrated from the Sudan into Kenya.

 

• Due to epidemics which attacked people and animals.
• Due to drought and famine.
• Due to internal or civil wars.
• Due to external attacks
• Due to love for adventure
• Due to need to look for pastures for their animals.
• Due to over population
• Due to the need to look for cultivable land by communities who farmed.
• Due to family and clan quarrels.

 

The effects of the migration of the Nilotes

 

1. There was assimilation of communities.
2. There was change in the economic activities of some communities for example the Luo became fishermen.
3. There were inter marriages with other communities especially their neighbours for example the Abagusii and the Abaluhyia.
4. There was interaction with communities the Nilotes came across.
5. There was conquest and displacement of some communities.
6. Wars increased between communities.
7. There was borrowing of cultural practices by the people who came into contact with the Nilotes.
8. Some communities developed new political institutions for example ‘Oloiboni’ by the Maasai and the institution of ‘Orkoyiot’ by the Nandi.
9. There was enrichment of language through word borrowing.

 

 

 

 

 

Migration and settlement of the people of Kenya.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Reasons for the migration of the Cushites.

 

The reasons why the Cushites migrated were need for pastures for their livestock, search for fertile land for cultivation, love for adventure, outbreak of diseases, external attacks, internal wars and clan feuds, over population and natural calamities such as drought and famine.

 

The effects of the migration of the Cushites.

 

The Cushites came into contact with other communities and there was cultural exchange. There was language enrichment as Cushites interacted with others. They assimilated other weaker communities. There was population increase after settling in better lands. Also there was expansion of trade.

There was interaction through trade, intermarriage and wars. The wars increased as the Cushites tried to acquire better pastures for their livestock. The Cushites for example the Oromo conquered and displaced the communities they came across in the process of migration. For instance, they dispersed the Bantu Communities who had settled at Shungwaya.

 

Review Questions.

 

1. How did the Kenya communities interact during their migrations and settlements?
2. Describe the migration of the:
3. Cushites
4. Bantu
5. Nilotes
6. Identify the impact of the migrations of the following:
7. Bantu
8. Nilotes
9. Cushites
10. Describe the effects of the interactions of the Agikuyu and the people they came into contact with during migration.
11. Describe the course and effects of the migration of the Luo.
12. Why did the Bantu migrate from Shungwaya?

CHAPTER 5.

 

SOCIAL, ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL ORGANISATION OF KENYAN SOCIETIES IN THE 19^TH CENTURY.

 

The people of Kenya in the 19^th century were of different linguistic groups comprising the Bantu, the Nilotes and the Cushites. The environment played a great role in determining their social, economic and political aspects which varied from one ethnic group to the other.

 

The Social, Economic and political organisation of the Agikuyu in the 19^th century

 

Social organisation

The Kikuyu were organised into clans. There were nine clans. Some of them were Anjiru, Ambui, Acera, Angari, Angeci and Airimu. The family was an important social political unit because it acted as the basis of the Kikuyu community. Above the family was the “mbari” or sub-clan under “Muramati” or caretaker.

The Kikuyu had age set which was acquired from the Gumba. They conducted birth and marriage ceremony. Men cleared the land, looked after the live stock and milked while women cultivated. The Kikuyu initiated (circumcised) boys and girls to adult hood. They worshiped a God they called ‘Ngai’ who lived on Mount Kenya (Kirinyaga).

The Kikuyu offered sacrifices to their God for thanks giving in sacred places. They slaughtered goats and sheep as sacrifice. They had medicinemen, rain makers and prophets. A medicineman was known as “Mundu Mugo” and he cured diseases. They also believed in ancestral spirits. Finally they paid dowry in form of cattle, sheep and goats.

 

Economic Organisation

The Agikuyu grew crops such as millet, sorghum, arrow roots and yams. They traded with their neighbours such as the Maasai and the Akamba. They smelted iron for making hoes and axes and also weaved and practiced basketry as well as pottery.

The Agikuyu hunted and gathered to substitute their diet. They kept beehives and harvested honey. Lastly, they kept livestock for example cattle, sheep and goats.

 

 

 

Political Organisation:

The Kikuyu were organised into clans-each made up of sub-clans called “Mbari”. They were politically organised into age –set systems composed of boys who were initiated. The Kikuyu community was decentralised and it had the institution of the ‘Muramati’ (clan leader). ‘Muramati’ co-ordinated all the activities of the sub-clan.

There were warriors who defended the community. The Kikuyu had a council of elders (KIAMA) which maintained law and order and made final decisions. It presided over religious functions. Cases were handled by ‘Kiama’ composed of individual who acted as judges.

 

 

Kikuyu and Meru settlements.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The Social, Economic and Political organisation of the Ameru in the 19^th century

 

Social organisation.

The Ameru who comprised the Chuka, Tharaka, Mwimbi, Muthambi, Imenti, Tigania and Igembe were organised into clans. The family was an important social institution. They were also organised into age-set systems (Nthuke/Irua) comprising of age mates.

 

 

 

The Ameru conducted initiation ceremonies in form of circumcision. Both Girls and boys were circumcised. They worshiped God under the sacred Fig (Mugumo) trees and they also performed sacrifices to their God.

The Ameru had medicinemen, rainmakers, fortune-tellers and prophets. They were ruled by a council of elders who also presided over religious ceremonies.

 

Economic organisation.

The Ameru grew crops such as millet and sorghum. They kept livestock such as cattle, sheep and goats and they hunted wild animals and gathered roots and fruits.

Some Ameru traded with their neighbours such as the Akamba, Mbere and Embu. They were engaged in traditional industries such as pottery, basketry, weaving, cloth making and iron smelting which enabled them to make knives, spears, arrow heads and iron hoes. Finally, they kept beehives and harvested honey.

 

Political organisation.

They were ruled by councils of elders called “Njuri Nceke” and they were organised into clans made up of several families which were related. There were age-set systems comprised of men who had been initiated into adult hood. There were warriors composed of strong circumcised men who defended the community in times of problems.

The Ameru were decentralised as there were different independent groups such as the Tharaka, Tigania, Mwimbi, Imenti, Igembe, Chuka, Igoji and Muthambi. Religious leaders played an important role in the administration of the Ameru and also foretold the future.

 

The social, economic and political organisation of the Akamba in the 19^th Century.

 

Social organisation

The Akamba were organised into clans made up of several related families. They had age-groups and age-set system. They practiced circumcision as an initiation rite.

They believed in witchcraft and had medicinemen and diviners. The Akamba conducted traditional ceremonies. Finally, they worshipped God and performed sacrifices to him.

 

 

 

 

Economic organisation

Some Akamba practiced crop cultivation and planted sorghum, millet, potatoes and beans while others kept livestock such as cattle, sheep and goats. The Akamba were skilled hunters and they also gathered fruits and roots to substitute their diet.

They traded with the Kikuyu, Taita, Mijikenda and later with the coastal people. The Akamba sold honey, arrow poison and tobacco to them while they bought beads and cloth from the coast and also ivory and foodstuff from the interior communities like the Samburu and Mbeere respectively. They smelted iron and made spears, arrow-heads, hoes, knives, cattle bells and jingles.

The Akamba were efficient beekeepers and they harvested a lot of honey. They were engaged in traditional industries where they manufactured pots, baskets, mats, stools and shields.

Those who lived close to river Tana did some fishing. They made carvings from wood and sold them to the people in exchange for cloth, snuff boxes and beads.

 

Political organisation

Politically the Akamba were organised into clans made up of several related families. They had councils of elders each entitled to “Nzama Sya Utui”.

They practiced the age-set system and they were ranked in age grades such as junior elders, medium elders, full elders and senior elders. The Akamba were decentralised. Akamba warriors defended the community. Judgement of cases was done by the council of elders.

 

How the Abagusii were organised socially, economically and politically.

 

Social Organisation

The Abagusii were organised into clans. Their social organisation was based on the extended family whose members claimed to have a common ancestor. They conducted initiation ceremonies in form of circumcision for boys and clitoridectomy for girls. Polygamy was a very common social practice among the Abagusii.

The Abagusii worshipped one supreme God called ‘Engoro’. They prayed through ancestral spirits. The Abagusii sacrificed to their God, Engoro who they regarded as the creator of the universe. They had medicinemen, rain makers and prophets. Lastly, they also conducted ceremonies marking birth, initiation and death.

 

 

 

Economic organisation.

The Abagusii were pastoralists and they kept cattle, sheep and goats. They cultivated crops such as millet, sorghum, pumpkins, potatoes and beans. Men hunted wild game while women gathered wild fruits and roots.

They conducted trade with their neighbours such as the Luo and the Luhyia. Finally, they were engaged in traditional industries such as making stone curvings and iron hoes for cultivation.

 

Political organisation.

The Abagusii were politically organised into clans made up of related families and each clan was ruled by “Omogambi”. They had age-set systems and councils of elders which led the clans in wars and judged cases.

The Abagusii were politically decentralised. They had warriors who defended their territory from the enemies.

 

The social, economic and political organisation of the Mijikenda in the 19^th Century.

 

Social organisation.

The social organisation of the Mijikenda was based on the clan. They practiced the age-set system. Initiation of boys took place after every five years. The elders were the clan leaders. Inter marriages between Kayas existed.

There was division of labour. Children looked after cattle, sheep and goats while young men built houses and cattle sheds, hunted and cleared the bush for cultivation.

The Mijikenda worshipped God and offered sacrifices. They conducted ceremonies during the time of birth, initiation and marriage.

 

Economic activities.

The Mijikenda fished in the Indian Ocean. They kept livestock such as cattle, sheep and goats and hunted and gathered fruits, honey and vegetables. They were engaged in traditional industries such as weaving and basketry.

The Mijikenda grew crops such as millet and also traded with the Swahilis and the people of the interior such as the Akamba.

 

Political organisation

The Mijikenda political set up was under the control of the clan. There were councils of elders who sorted out all matters concerning the ‘Kayas’.

Age-set system existed. The Mijikenda had warriors who defended their territory and ensured that there was law and order. Cases were judged by the council of elders.

The Social, economic, and political organisation of the Luo in the 19^th Century.

 

Social organisation

The Luo were organised into clans composed of families with a common ancestor. The clans were grouped into larger territorial units called ‘Gweng’ which were occupied by foreign lineages entitled ‘Joka’ and clansmen. A council of elders existed which presided over religious ceremonies.

The Luo worshipped a God called Nyasaye through their ancestral spirits. This was conducted in the sacred places. Priests existed who linked the people with the ancestral spirits. They had diviners who interpreted God’s messages to the people. The Luo sacrificed for thanks giving and for appeasing their God.

They initiated boys and girls into adulthood by removing their six lower teeth. They also prepared them for marriage. Finally, the Luo conducted other ceremonies and celebrations such as burial ceremonies, naming, beer drinking and wrestling.

 

Economic organisation

The Luo cultivated crops such as beans, sweet potatoes, peas, millet, groundnuts and sorghum. They hunted wild animals and collected fruits, vegetables and roots. The Luo businessmen traded with their neighbours for example Abaluhyia, Abagusii, Nandi and Kipsigis.

The Luo smelted iron and made iron tools and also engaged themselves in the traditional industries such as pottery, basketry and cloth making. They fished in Lake Victoria and in the rivers passing through their territory e.g. Rivers Sondu, Nzoia, Nyando, Kuja and Yala.

 

The political organisation

The Luo were politically organised into clans and they were decentralised. The clans were made up of families headed by “Jaduong”. Several clans merged together formed a ‘gweng’. There existed a council of elders made up of clan heads and other remarkable elders. Related clans formed alliances and defended their territory. Each Luo alliance (Oganda) had a political leader entitled Ruoth. There were individual clan councils, doho, controlled by Ladito.

Also there was a council called Buch Piny made up of elders who advised the Ruoth for example the military leader, Osumba Mirwayi. The council of elders was made up of clan heads and other remarkable elders. It solved internal disputes over land, declared war and performed other political and religious functions.

Doho was a smaller council which operated under smaller regional sub-divisions. There were warriors referred to as Thuondi who raided the neighbouring communities.

 

The social, economic and political organisation of the Nandi in the 19^th century

 

Social organisation

The Nandi were organised according to totemic clans. The house was an important social unit and several houses made a family. The Nandi practiced initiation ceremonies like circumcision of boys during adolescence at five years intervals. They had age-set and age-grades. The age sets were cyclic.

The Nandi people worshipped a supreme God and sacrificed to Him. This God was entitled Asis. They had medicine men, prophets and rain makers. The Orkoyiot acted as a spiritual leader although he was also a political leader. He foretold the future and also adviced the council of elders.

 

Economic activities

The Nandi practiced mixed farming because they grew crops and kept livestock such as cattle, sheep and goats. They smelted iron and made iron tools and weapons such as spears, cattle bells and hoes.

The Nandi traded with their neighbours such as the Luhyia, Maasai and the Luo. They were engaged in traditional industries such as weaving, basketry and pottery. Some Nandi people hunted and gathered roots and fruits as well as vegetables. A few others harvested honey because they kept beehives.

 

Political organisation

The Nandi were organised into clans made up of several families. Their government was decentralised. They had councils of elders who solved major disputes. The Nandi had age-set systems. They had well trained warriors who defended their territory. The age-grade system gave rise to the warrior groups.

The Nandi introduced the institution of Orkoyiot in the 19^th century which helped in uniting the people. Towards the close of the 19^th century the Nandi had also developed a society based on semi independent units known as Bororoisiek/Bororiet. Each was under a council of elders.

The Nandi had political units each made up of several clans and being controlled by the council they called Kok. The Kok judged cases and settled disputes.

 

 

The social, economic and political organisation of the Maasai in the 19^th c.

 

Social organisation

The Maasai were organised into clans and they had age-set systems.  They conducted initiation ceremonies which promoted boys and warriors to the next age-set. After initiation one of them became “Olaiguanani”, or leader and spokesman. The Masaai worshipped a God called “Enkai”. They sent prayers to him through Oloiboni. Prayers were offered in shrines.

They sacrificed to their God under sacred trees. The Maasai lived in Manyattas and their ways of life were based on preservation of cattle and grazing lands. They had had ritual experts and diviners. Lastly, the Maasai women and children constituted the lowest members of the society.

 

Economic organisation

The Maasai were predominantly a pastoral community although the Kwavi (Iloikop) section of the Maasai cultivated and grew millet and sorghum. The Purko section of the Maasai kept cattle and never cultivated crops. They traded with their neighbours such as the Luo, Nandi, Kikuyu and the Kamba people and hunted wild animals for meat and also gathered roots and fruits for food and medicine extracted from leaves, roots and stems of trees.

The Maasai smelted iron and made iron tools such as knives, daggers, spears and arrow-heads. They were engaged in traditional industries which included basketry and weaving. They also organised raids for cattle from neighbours especially during droughts. The Maasai women did supportive duties such as milking cows and building huts with mud.

 

Political organisation

The Maasai were politically organised into clans which were under the administration of the councils of elders. They did not have a centralised system of government because they existed in sub-tribal sections e.g. Purko, Kwavi, Sampur. Each sub-tribal section of the Maasai was independent of the other. The Maasai were under control of ritual experts entitled Oloibon.

Succession to leadership among the Maasai was considered to be hereditary. This implies that after the death of the Oloibon, one of his sons was to take over control of the government.

The Maasai men were grouped into age-sets and age-groups. There existed a strong army composed of warriors (Morans) who defended the Maasai territory and also expanded it through conquest. There were senior warriors who debated the major political issues of their community. Eunoto ceremony marked the graduation of Morans into junior elders. Finally, there were elders who had retired from public life and they were now consulted to help solve difficult political issues.

The social, economic and political organisation of the Somali.

 

Social Organisation.

The Somali believed in the existence of God who was all powerful and who controlled everybody’s destiny. They conducted prayers to their God and sacrificed to him when need arose. The Somali later got converted into Islam through interaction with the Muslim immigrants. From the time they adopted Islam, they embraced Muslim culture.

The Somali were socially organised into clans made up of related families. They conducted initiation of boys and then grouped them into age-sets.

Economic organisation

The Somali kept livestock such as cattle, sheep, goats and donkeys as well as camels. Those who lived near wells and rivers practiced a bit of cultivation.

They also smelted iron and made iron tools and weapons e.g. swords. The Somali hunted wild animals and gathered birds’ eggs. They traded with their neighbours such as the Oromo.

 

Political organisation

The Somali were politically organised into clans whose members traced their origin back to a common ancestor. Each of the Somali clans was headed by a council of elders.  The Somali were controlled by an overall leader known as the Sultan. The Somali clans joined together to face an enemy in times of crisis.

There were age-sets which provided the community with warriors. The senior age-sets retired from active public life and were settled in different territories.

 

The social, economic and political organisation of the Boran in 19^th century.

 

Social organisation

The Boran is one of the Oromo speaking communities in Kenya today. The Boran people were socially organised into clans each made of related families. They had age-groups and age-sets which integrated the Boran community by facilitating co-operation among all the members of the community.

The Boran believed in the existence of one God. The Oromo name for their God was Wak. At first the Boran were believers in traditional religion but by the end of the 19^th century many of them had been converted to Islam.

 

 

 

Economic organisation

The Boran were pastoralist and they kept sheep, cattle, goats and camels. They hunted elephants for ivory and sold them to the Swahili traders and other trading partners such as the Mijikenda and the Pokomo.

Boran women collected and gathered a variety of items such as insects, roots and honey. The Boran were also engaged in simple industry for instance cloth making from animal skins and pottery. Some cultivated grains like peas, beans, pepper and vegetables.

 

Political organisation           

The Boran like other Cushites were organised into clans and each of the clans was made up of related families. They had councils of elders who headed clans and presided over assemblies as well as acting as ritual experts.

The council of elders settled disputes, maintained law and order and their decisions were final. They had age-set system which provided them with warriors who defended their territory from external attacks.

The Boran clans were autonomous except in times of disaster when they formed alliances to fight against a common enemy Finally, the Boran were politically decentralised.

 

 

Review Questions.

 

1. Identify the economic organisation of each of the following during the colonial period:
2. Bantu communities
3. Cushites
4. Nilotes
5. Describe the political organisation of the following:
6. i) Luo
7. ii) Akamba

iii) Abagusii

3. What was the role of the council of elders among the Ameru.
4. Why was the institution of the Orkoiyot important among the Nandi.
5. Discuss the social organisation of the following:
6. i) Kikuyu
7. Boran

• Maasai

6. What problems did the migrating communities encounter during the pre-colonial period?

 

CHAPTER 6.

 

CONTACTS BETWEEN EAST AFRICA AND THE OUTSIDE WORLD UP TO THE 19^TH CENTURY.

 

The early visitors to the Kenya Coast before the 15^th century were Egyptians, Greeks, Persians, Romans, Phoenicians, Indians, Chinese and Arabs. The main reason of the coming of these early visitors was to trade with the people of the East African coast.

The commodities traders obtained from the interior of East Africa and exported to the outside world (e.g. from present day Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania) were Ivory, Rhinocerous horns, Leopard skins and skins from many other animals, Ostrich feathers, Copper, Slaves, Tortoise shells, Gold and Emberglis.

The commodities the people of East Africa obtain from the outside world (e.g. from India, China, Arabia, Egypt) were Spices, Cowrie shells, Drugs, Swords/daggers, Salt, Porcelain cups and bowls , Glassware, Rugs and carpets, Beads, Cloth, Sugar and Mats.

 

The Indian Ocean trade up to 1500 AD

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The evidence which may clarify that early visitors reached the Kenya coast.

 

There has been a lot of remains of the Greek and Chinese coins along the East African coast especially in towns such as Malindi, Mombasa. Lamu, Gedi and Jumba la Mtwana which declined. These have been collected and some of them preserved and displayed in the Fort Jesus museum. There are also fragments of Chinese pottery.  These include broken Chinese cups, jars and bowls made of porcelain.

Archaeological findings along the coast reveal that there were foreigners who visited towns along the coast and they traded with people in those towns. Evidence is the remains of item escavated. There are some written documents, which mention the coast of East Africa, for instance the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea and Geography written by Ptelomy.

The Arabs have lived along the East African coast for a long period. This is clear and undoubted evidence that early visitors came to the East African coast up to the 19^th century.

 

Reasons why trade developed between the East African coast and Asia before the 19^th century

 

Trade developed between the East African coast and Asia before the 19^th century due to availability of the goods traders from both sides needed. Goods from East Africa were highly demanded in Asia while there was a high demand of Asian goods in East Africa. The monsoon winds enabled the traders to travel by the use of dhows.

There was a relative political stability of the Kenyan coastal city states because rulers such as Seyyid Said ensured that peace prevailed and that traders were secure. The East African coast was easily accessible by sea due to existence of natural harbours such as the old Mombasa harbour and Malindi harbour where dhows could anchor.

The trade developed also due to establishment of strong trade links between East Africa and Asia.

 

How the trade between the East African coast and the outside world was organised before 1500.

 

The coastal Arab and Swahilis obtained trade commodities from the interior communities such as the Akamba, Baganda, Yao and the Nyamwezi. The trading commodities were like copper, gold, ivory, leopard skins, rhino horns, tortoise shells and ostrich feathers.

The coastal Arab and Swahilis exchanged the commodities by giving African traders items such as Beads, sugar, salt, cloth, glassware, daggers, cowrie shells and porcelain cups.  The form of exchange was barter.

The Arab traders either transported the items across the Indian Ocean themselves or sold them to other Asian traders who were mainly Chinese, Greeks, Indians or fellow Arabs. These traders used dhows which sailed to E. Africa between November and April and to Asia between June and October.

 

The East Coast traders.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Why some Arabs migrated from Arabia to the East African coast

 

Some Arabs came to trade with the people along the East African coast. Others came to trade with the people of East Africa.

Some Arabs came as refugees. They were escaping the political and religious persecutions in Arabia after the death of Prophet Mohammed. There are some who came to the East African coast to establish settlements. Some came for adventure. A few came to explore the East African coast.

 

The impact of the Indian Ocean trade on the people of East Africa

East African coastal towns.

 

The Indian Ocean trade took place for a long period along the East African coast. As a result of this towns were established along the East African coast such as Malindi, Mombasa, Lamu, Kilifi and Gedi.

There was intermarriage between the foreigners such as Arabs and different African communities at the coast. This was promoted by the socialisation in the towns. The East African people adopted Asiatic architecture for example they began building rectangular stone houses.

The Indian Ocean trade led to the spread of Islamic culture along the Kenyan coast. For instance, coastal people began wearing Arabic dress, building mosques, and being converted into Islam. It led to the spread of Kiswahili language. By 1500 it had become the main language of the coast. New crops were introduced for instance rice and coconut. It stimulated commercial activities between different communities in the interior for example trade between the Akamba and the Mijikenda also trade between the Baganda in Uganda and the Nyamwezi in Tanzania.

 

The Arabs were able to control the East African coast and use Islamic law in their administration. The trade led to the emergence of a class of prosperous traders who controlled trade.

The Indian Ocean trade also led to the development of the East African slave trade. African inhabitants acquired foreign goods e.g. cloth, beads and glassware from traders. Trade routes developed e.g. the one from Mombasa to Ukambani, and one from Bagamoyo to Nyamwezi land and going North to Buganda. Many African people suffered due to slave trade. Many others died.

The Indian Ocean trade stimulated European interest on East African coast which eventually led to the colonisation of East Africa. The East African coast became known to the outside world and it also strengthened ties with India and the far East.

 

How slave traders were obtaining slaves in East Africa during the slave trade.

Slave merchants were exchanging slaves with other goods like cloth, beads and guns.

They were kidnapping free men and selling them as slaves. Slave traders were conducting raids to capture slaves. This was very common with the Yao and the Nyamwezi communities in Tanzania.

Slave traders were also organising intercommunity wars and the community which was defeated had the war captives sold as slaves. Criminals were being sold by rulers and this was regarded as punishment for law breakers. Children were being enticed with sweets and then captured. After being captured they were sent to the slave market in Zanzibar for sale.

 

The slave market in Zanzibar.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The main East African trade routes of the 19^th century.

 

The effects of the East African slave trade.

 

The East African slave trade was mainly rampant in the 19^th century and it left the region very different from the way it was before. Slave raids resulted to death of many innocent Africans. A lot of property was destroyed by being burnt during slave raids.

There was a lot of suffering by those children and women whose families were  broken. Slave trade settlements were established at Bagamoyo and Frere town near Mombasa.

Some communities which depended on slave trade expanded. Such communities were the Nyamwezi and the Yao in Tanzania. It encouraged development of trade merchants such as Tippu Tip, Msiri and Kivoi.  East Africa was depopulated as a result of slave trade. It opened the interior for trade with other items such as ivory in exchange for beads, cloth and firearms.

Slave trade contributed to the spread of Islam and Kiswahili language in the interior. African traditional industries such as pottery, weaving and iron smelting were abandoned due to constant raids. African communities who were raided and their families broken were forced to free and this affected African cultures.

 

Reasons why the Portuguese came to the East African coast.

 

The Portuguese came to conquer the Arabs who had attacked and conquered th Christians in Spain and Portugal and they also wished to spread Christianity along the East African coast. They wanted to look for a legendary Prester John, who was believed to be living in Ethiopia and who could assist them to conquer Arabs.

The Portuguese wanted to trade with the coastal traders. Vasco da Gama landed at Malindi to be provided with a guide who would show him the way to India. Others like Alfonzo de Almeida came to conquer the coastal towns and acquire the wealth of those prosperous towns. Some came to settle along the coast in town such as Malindi and Mombasa. The Portuguese for example built and settled in Fort Jesus in Mombasa.

 

Why the Portuguese developed interest on the East African coast after 1550.

 

1. East Africa provided bases for Portuguese ships and troops.
2. To levy tributes (taxes) from the wealthy coastal merchants.

• To look for ways and means of controlling the Indian Ocean trade.

1. To capture the Sofala gold trade.
2. To take control of the East coast in order to use it as a strategic base as they controlled all trade to Europe.
3. To prevent the Turks and the Egyptians from acquiring support from the East coast in case of war with the Portuguese.

• The East coast of Africa provided natural harbours where Portuguese ships could easily anchor before proceeding to India.
• The climate of the East coast of Africa was conducive to the Portuguese men and they could also obtain fresh water and food before they continued their journey to India.

 

The Portuguese and Arab sea routes.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The Portuguese conquest of the East Coast of Africa up to 1510.

 

Fransisco d’Almeida

Alvares Pedro Cabral led an expedition in 1500 to capture Sofala but failed. In 1502 Vasco da Gama led an expedition which resulted to the conquest of Kilwa.

In 1503, Ruy Lourenco Ravasco led an expedition against Zanzibar which he conquered and forced to pay tribute. In 1505, Fransisco de Almeida led an expedition of 20 ships and 1500 soldiers which conquered Kilwa, Mombasa and Sofala. Brava attempted to resist but it was rooted and then burnt.

In 1506 Pate and the East coast was now under the control of the

Portuguese.

 

It is important to note that – The Portuguese after conquering the Arabs began establishing their rule which lasted for 200 years. The Portuguese headquarters along the East Coast were Mozambique and Mombasa. Each of these headquarters was under a Captain who was answerable to the ‘Viceroy’ stationed at Goa in India. The duties of the captain were:

1. To collect tribute from the local rulers.
2. To suppress resistance or rebellion.

• To supervise the ruling families in the city states.

1. To impose custom duties on import and exports.
2. To represent the Viceroy on the East coast of Africa.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Reasons why the Portuguese were able to conquer the Kenya coast easily

 

The Portuguese took a short time to conquer the East Coast of Africa after Vasco da Gama’s visit on his way to India. The reasons for his success were as follows:

1. The city states which resisted were severely punished so as to discourage others from resisting.
2. The Wazimba who were cannibals (they ate people) assisted the Portuguese to conquer the Arabs so that they could feed on their flesh.
3. The Portuguese frequently organised and carried out surprise attacks on Arab settlements.
4. The ruler (Sultan) of Malindi collaborated with the Portuguese and helped them to fight fellow city states.
5. The coastal city states were disunited.
6. The Portuguese were better militarily trained and equipped. They used very powerful guns and cannons.
7. The natural harbours in Mombasa and Malindi provided the Portuguese with bases for their ships and troops.
8. The Portuguese constantly acquired reinforcement from their mother country or from their base in Goa in India.
9. The Portuguese troops fought with determination with the aim of establishing a Portuguese empire in the East.
10. The Portuguese used strong and superior ships compared with the Arab dhows which were driven by wind.

 

Why the Portuguese rule and power along the coast declined

 

The rivals of the Portuguese during the period they controlled the East African coast were the Egyptians, the British Turks, Persians, Oman Arabs and the East African Coastal Arabs.

There was intense rivalry from the British and the Dutch. The coast was invaded by Muslim nations such as Oman and Turkey. The city states organised constant rebellions against the Portuguese. The Portuguese administrators were corrupt and inefficient.

The people of Malindi refused to support the Portuguese because the Portuguese authority had mistreated them. The Portuguese never at any time united with coastal inhabitants to develop the coast. Instead the inhabitants were always suspicious of the Portuguese who also never trusted them. Revenue from gold declined. The Portuguese were also affected by the decline of the Indian Ocean trade because it was the main source of income for maintaining their empire.

Portugal was weakened by its union with Spain. It was annexed by Spain between 1590 and 1640. Portugal was also too small to provide enough soldiers and administrators. For this reason, Portuguese soldiers were defeated and driven out of Fort Jesus by the Oman Arabs after a siege for 33 months.

 

Fort Jesus.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The impact of the Portuguese administration on the coast of East Africa

 

Positive impact

1. The Portuguese introduced new crops such as sweet potatoes, ground nuts, cassava, maize, paw paws and pineapples.
2. The Portuguese built Fort Jesus which is today used as a museum.
3. The Portuguese introduced the use of birds droppings called “Guano” as a way of increasing soil fertility. They also introduced crop rotation.
4. The Portuguese words contributed to Kiswahili language e.g. the word ‘mvinyo’.
5. The Portuguese architecture was borrowed by coastal inhabitants.
6. The Portuguese directly linked the Kenya coast with India.
7. The Portuguese Christians tried to introduce Christianity to the coastal dwellers although they failed totally.

Negative impact.

1. Frequent attacks and wars between the Portuguese and the coastal inhabitants led to loss of lives of many people.
2. Property was destroyed as the Portuguese burnt the coastal towns to punish rebels.
3. Traditional industries declined along the coast.
4. Coastal towns declined. Some for instance Gedi and Jumba La Mtwana never recovered even after the Portuguese power declined
5. The Portuguese affected the culture of the coastal people.
6. The economic development of the coast was retarded due to destruction of towns, burning of crops and rooting by Portuguese.
7. Slave trade was intensified as a result of acquisition of firearms.
8. The coastal people suffered a lot due to frequent attacks by the Portuguese.
9. Hatred developed between the coastal people and the Portuguese and also between the coastal city states.
10. The Portuguese introduced dangerous weapons e.g. guns.

 

How Seyyid Said’s rule encouraged development of plantation agriculture on the East African coast

 

Seyyid Said made Zanzibar his capital in 1840 and from there he controlled the East coast towns and the Indian ocean trade which was an international trade. Having established political control over coastal city states, Seyyid Said appointed governors (Liwalis) to control the city states on his behalf.

The Oman Arabs settled along the East African coast and began developing grain plantations around Malindi and Takaungu and also coconut plantations around Mombasa. Slave labour was used to work in the plantations. This practice therefore became the major cause of increased slave trade in East Africa in the 19^th century.

Seyyid Said encouraged more and more wealthy Arab and Swahili settlers to acquire land around Mombasa, Malindi and Lamu and establish more plantatons. The food produced was sold in Oman as well as in the islands of Zanzibar and Pemba which were mainly growing cloves.

When Seyyid Said signed the Hammerton Treaty in 1845 and forbid export of slaves from Africa, the supply of slave labour on the coastal plantations increased. This was followed by the production of more rice, maize, millet and beans than ever before such that by 1870 the Kenyan coast had become the granary of East Africa.

 

 

 

The factors which enabled Seyyid Said to establish the Oman rule on the East African coast

 

The Portuguese were driven out of Fort Jesus by the Oman Arabs who then replaced them as the new rulers. Seyyid Said appointed governors (Liwali) to help him administer Oman from 1806 to 1840. In 1840 Seyyid Said transferred his capital to Zanzibar and he was able to rule the coast from close quarters.

Seyyid Said overcame the rebellious Mazrui governors before he transferred to establish his capital in Zanzibar.

 

Note that – Seyyid Said chose Zanzibar to be his capital because:

1. It had a good climate for crop growing.
2. It had a deep natural harbour where ships could anchor.

• Zanzibar had fresh water.

1. It had fertile soils for cultivation.
2. It was close to the coast where he ruled and strategically placed.
3. Zanzibar was convenient for trade with the mainland.

• Zanzibar had supported the efforts of Seyyid Said to control the East African coast.

 

The impact of the Oman rule on the East African coast

 

1. Establishment of the Oman rule led to the establishment of clove plantations in Zanzibar and Pemba.
2. It led to the development of slave trade at the coast because slaves were used as labourers in the plantations.
3. It led to the establishment of a commercial empire along the East African coast.
4. It stimulated the development of the long distance trade among the Yao, Akamba, and the Nyamwezi of Tanzania.
5. It led to the growth and expansion of towns like Kilwa, Pemba and Zanzibar.
6. The Swahili culture was intensified along the coast.
7. It led to the establishment of strong political empire under the rule of the Sultan’s at the coast.
8. The Indian traders (Banyans) introduced the Rupee as the currency for use along the East African coast.
9. The slave trade which was intensified by the Oman rulers broke down families in most of the areas where raids took place. There was also suffering and loss of property due to burning of houses during raids.

 

 

The development of the long distance trade in East Africa

 

Trade between the Kenya Coast and other outside countries began very early. It was in the 19^th century that this trade expanded rapidly especially during the rule of Seyyid Said. This international trade led to the development of the long distance trade.

The long distance trade involved trade between the East Coast of Africa and the interior. It developed due to the demand for slaves in Arabia and the demand for Ivory in Europe. The people involved in this trade were mainly the Akamba and the Mijikenda of Kenya, the Nyamwezi and Yao of Tanzania, the coastal Arabs and the Swahilis and the Baganda of Uganda.

The main commodities of trade obtained in the interior of East Africa in the 19^th century were ivory and slaves which were in great demand at the coast. These were exchanged with cloth, beads, glassware utensils, ironware and carpets. The Arab and Swahili traders were at first waiting for trade goods to be supplied to them at the coast but later in 1860s they started penetrating into the interior. They took control of the long distance trade from the Africans such as the Akamba and the Nyamwezi and they travelled into the interior as far as Buganda and the Democratic Republic of Congo.

The traders moved in caravans for security reasons. The goods they obtained were shipped across the Indian Ocean and taken to Asian countries such as India, Persia, Arabia and China.

 

The factors which facilitated the Akamba long distance trade

 

The Akamba began the long distance trade due the existence of prominent personalities like Kivoi who attracted a large following of men who regarded him as their leader and accompanied him during trading expeditions. The Akamba geographical position gave them the advantage of being the middlemen between the coastal traders and the communities in central Kenya who provided ivory.

Many parts of Kambaland were not suitable for agriculture because of being hilly, rocky, sandy and also because of receiving inadequate rain and having very poor soils. The second quarter of the 19^th century was associated with drought and famine in Ukambani which forced the Akamba to engage themselves in the long distance trade.

The Akamba were experienced traders having acquired trading skills in the local and intercommunity trade. There was no competition because the coastal traders did not venture in the interior for trade because they feared the Maasai warriors. The Akamba gave false stories about the fierceness of the people of the interior. This scared away foreigners from entering the interior.

 

Organisation of the Akamba long distance trade.

 

The Akamba were organised into trading and hunting groups. The hunters killed animals such as elephants to obtain ivory. They also obtained hides and skins. The traders organised themselves into caravans consisting of about 700 people who included slaves, porters and the traders themselves.

The form of trade was at first barter system before the introduction of currency. Traders moved into the interior as far as Lake Baringo and Samburu. There were resting places between Ukambani and the Coast such as Mariakani. At first the Akamba acted as middlemen between the coastal traders and the people of interior. Later the coastal traders such as Arabs and Swahilis began penetrating into the interior.

The Akamba trade links

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Factors which contributed to the decline of the Akamba long distance trade

 

There was competition from Arab and Swahili traders who affected the middleman position of the Akamba. The Kikuyu and the Embu refused to trade with the Akamba because the Akamba raided them to obtain slaves. The Akamba were raided by the Oromo and the Maasai therefore the Kamba trading activity was no longer secure. The interior communities began taking their trade goods to the coast therefore ignoring the Kamba middlemen position.

 

 

The European occupation and the abolition of slave trade undermined Akamba long distance trade even further. After the slave trade was abolished it became difficult to transport ivory to the coast. Also the number of elephants had become drastically reduced making this trade uneconomical.

The stories the Akamba gave to scare the foreign traders from going to the interior were proved untrue. As a result of this the Akamba trade ceased to thrive.

 

The impact of the Akamba long distance trade on the people of Kenya?

 

1. The Akamba long distance trade made foreign traders to be aware of the wealth of Kenya. The first to come and spy about this wealth were traders and explorers. This later contributed to colonisation by the Europeans.
2. The people of the interior developed a taste of imported foreign goods such as cloth, beads, glassware and ironware. They started exchanging ivory, hides and skins with the coastal traders to obtain them.
3. It is stimulated local and inter community trade.
4. The Akamba long distance trade contributed to the expansion of slave trade because slaves were used to carry ivory.
5. The long distance trade gave rise to prosperous and well-known merchants like Kivoi and Ngonyo.
6. The Wanga kingdom was strengthened due to acquisition of wealth and firearms.
7. The interior was opened for trade with the coastal Arabs and Swahilis.
8. The traders developed good communication between the interior and the coast.
9. It enabled Islam and Swahili culture to penetrate into the interior through Kamba converts.
10. New crops such as mangoes, rice and bananas were introduced into the interior of Kenya.
11. Akamba borrowed aspects of other cultures from the trading partners.

 

Development of international trade.

 

It was the efforts of Seyyid Said in Zanzibar which enabled East Africa to get involved in the international trade in the 19^th century. The foreign traders from USA, Britain and France signed commercial treaties with Seyyid Said which enabled them to open consulates in Zanzibar.

Seyyid Said also invited the Indian Banyans and allowed them to settle and participate in trade with the other foreign traders.

 

 

The international trade developed due to the following factors:

1. Seyyid Said created commercial relations with foreign countries after signing treaties with Britain, France, Germany and USA.
2. The traders were provided with funds to boost trade. The Indian Banyans loaned traders along the East African Coast.
3. Seyyid Said who was a powerful ruler maintained peace and political stability along the East African coast therefore creating a conducive atmosphere for trade.
4. Industrial Revolution which occurred in Britain in the 19^th century brought about a high demand for raw materials from East Africa.
5. The people of East Africa demanded foreign manufactured goods therefore creating a ready market for foreign goods.
6. The people of the East African coast were experienced in trade because they had traded with the people of Asia many years before the 19^th
7. The East African coast with its natural harbours and good climate attracted many foreign traders.
8. There existed a class of wealthy traders who promoted trade.

 

Impact of international trade on the people of East Africa

 

1. The East African slave trade was boosted through introduction of ammunitions such as guns.
2. The foreign traders paved the way for colonisers who took control of East Africa.
3. The traders opened up the interior of East Africa a thing which encouraged the missionaries to penetrate into the interior to stop slave trade and spread Christianity.
4. The people of East Africa developed a taste of imported goods such as guns, cloth and ironware.
5. The trade led to the growth of urban centres.
6. East African coast was exposed to the outside world.

 

The Spread of Christianity in East Africa.

 

The Portuguese were the first foreigners to attempt to spread Christianity in East Africa but totally failed. The Christian missionaries of the 19^th century from Germany and Britain succeeded in spreading Christianity and winning converts in East Africa. They established mission schools hospitals and churches which contributed a lot in the spread of Christianity.

 

 

 

The Christian missionary societies which established mission stations in Africa were Church Missionary Society (CMS), the London Missionary Society (LMS), the Baptist Mission Society, the Bremen Society, the Besel Missionary Society, the Scottish Missionary Society, the Church of England Society for the propagation of the Gospel, the Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society and the Universities Mission to Central Africa.

 

The spread of Missionary activity in East Africa.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Why the Christian Missionaries come to East Africa

 

The Christian missionaries came to East Africa in order to:

• Carry out exploration activities.
• Spread christianity.
• Civilize Africans
• Abolish slave trade and slavery.
• Spread western education and culture.
• Introduce legitimate trade in areas where slave trade was abolished.
• Introduce better health services.

 

 

 

 

 

 

The activities of the Christian Missionaries in East Africa in the19th century

 

The Christian missionaries who came to East Africa in the 19^th Century were engaged in training freed slaves on how to contribute in the spread of Christianity, spreading Christianity and converting the local people to be followers of Christianity.

They were also engaged in establishing churches, schools, hospitals and dispensaries. They also translated the Bible into African languages and paved the way for European colonisation.

The missionaries also helped to eradicate slave trade and slavery by advocating the evils associated with this inhuman trade to the British Government.

 

The factors which contributed to the spread of Christianity in East Africa in the 19^th century.

 

1. The Christian missionaries were given support by Seyyid Said. He gave them letters which introduced them to the governors of the coastal towns.
2. Some African traditional rulers such as Nabongo Mumia of Wanga in western Kenya, Kabaka Mutesa of Buganda and Mirambo of Nyamwezi were friendly to the missionaries.
3. The establishment of many mission Schools and Churches helped in winning more converts.
4. Missionaries studied African languages and made it easy for them to translate the bible into local languages; e.g.  Kikamba , Kirabai  and
5. Freed slaves from ‘FRERE TOWN’ who served as catechists helped much in the spread of Christianity.
6. Development of transport and communication e.g. railways and roads made easier for the missionaries to venture deep into the interior of Kenya.
7. When Quinine was discovered it enabled the missionaries to venture into the interior without fear of malaria.
8. The peace which prevailed in East Africa during the colonial period encouraged the spread of Christianity. This peace was as a result of abolition of slave trade and establishment of colonial rule which marked the end of inter community wars.

 

 

 

The problems which the missionaries in East Africa encountered before the attainment of independence

 

1. Language barrier was an obstacle to the spread of Christianity.
2. There were problems of Transport and communication because even at the eve of independence very few areas were served by railway lines and roads.
3. Missionaries suffered from tropical diseases like malaria.
4. Missionaries lacked adequate capital to maintain and sustain them.
5. There was severe opposition from Islam, which had already spread along the East African coast.
6. The Missionaries were attacked by hostile African communities such as the Nandi of Kenya.
7. Sometimes due to lack of security the property of the missionaries were stolen
8. There was rivalry between different Missionary groups which resulted to hatred and disunity.
9. Missionaries encountered shortages of essential human requirements like food and water.
10. African communities opposed missionaries who interfered with their culture and way of life.
11. They were attacked by slave traders.

 

The contributions of Christian Missionaries to the welfare of the people of East Africa

 

Missionaries established schools and taught Africans how to read and write. They provided modern medical services by establishing hospitals and dispensaries. Missionaries advocated for the abolition of slave trade and slavery and they established freed slave settlement and used freed slaves to spread Christianity.

Missionaries spread Christianity and made many converts. They translated the Bible into African languages such as Kikamba, Kirabai and Kiswahili. The Missionaries also contributed a lot in the development of transport and communication by building roads to serve mission stations.

The Christian missionaries helped to eradicate some inhuman practices such as human sacrifice and tried to discourage witchcraft. They introduced new crops such as tea, coffee, cotton and pyrethrum and new better methods of farming.

 

 

 

The results of the Christian missionary activities in East Africa

 

The missionaries translated the Bible into native languages such as Kiswahili, Kikamba and Kirabai. They converted Africans to Christianity. Those converted abandoned traditional customs such as polygamy and human sacrifice.

The Christian Missionaries introduced Western education and civilization. They also established medical services by establishing hospitals and dispensaries which improved the welfare of the Africans and reduced death rate.

The missionaries explored part of Kenya and reported their findings to their mother countries. This contributed to the colonization of Kenya and the rest of East African countries. The Christian Missionaries also experimented with new crops such as coffee. They also introduced new methods of farming.

Transport and communication means were developed especially those which served the mission centres. Such means were roads and telephone lines. They collected useful information concerning the customs and the institutions of African communities. For instance Dr. Krapf studied and recorded the customs of the Mijikenda. This information is very useful for reconstructing history today.

 

 

Review Questions.

 

1. Why did the early foreigners visit the East African coast before 1500 AD?
2. i) How was the trade between the East African coast and the outside

world organised before 1900 AD?

1. ii) What factors contributed to the development of the above trade?
2. i) Identify the problems the Portuguese encountered along the East

African coast.

1. ii) Show the ways the Portuguese tried to evade those problems.
2. a) Discuss the positive and negative impact of the Portuguese

administration on the East African coast.

1. b) Give all the reasons for the decline of the coastal towns during the Portuguese era.
2. Explain the contribution of Seyyid Said in East Africa.
3. Describe the factors which facilitated the spread of Christianity in East Africa.

 

 

CHAPTER 7.

 

CITIZENSHIP.

 

A citizen is someone who is legally recognised as belonging to a particular country or state. Citizenship is therefore the act of legally belonging to a particular country or state. This provides the individual with legal rights to belong to that country.

 

The way one can become a Kenyan citizen

1. a) Citizenship by birth

• Here one qualifies to be a Kenyan citizen automatically if he or she is born in Kenya and his or her parents are Kenyan citizens at the date of his or her birth.
• Also if one is born outside Kenya and at the date of his birth his father is a Kenyan citizen he also qualifies automatically to be a Kenyan citizen by birth.

 

1. b) Citizen by registration

This is offered to people who have reached the age of twenty-one years and have satisfied the Minister in charge with the following conditions:

1. That he is of African origin or a commonwealth citizen.
2. That he has all qualities of being a suitable citizen of Kenya.
3. That he has resided in Kenya for a period of five years.
4. That he is of good character.
5. That he has adequate knowledge of English or Kiswahili
6. That if he is of African origin, he or his parent must have been born in an African country which also allows Kenyan citizens to be their citizens by legislation or he must have been a resident for at least ten years in a country which permits Kenyan citizens to become citizens by legislation and he is not a citizen of an independent state in Africa.

 

1. c) Citizenship by naturalisation

Naturalisation is making a foreigner to become a citizen of a particular country. One can qualify to attain this if:

1. a) He is twenty one years old.
2. b) He satisfies the concerned minister that he knows enough Kiswahili.
3. c) He has proved to be of good character.

 

1. d) He has been lawfully living in Kenya for at least 12 months preceding his application.
2. e) He satisfies the minister that he intends, if naturalised, to continue living in Kenya.
3. f) He has been lawfully and ordinarily living in Kenya for a period totalling to 4 years in the previous 8 years including the 12 months preceding his application.
4. g) He applies in the manner prescribed by parliament and the minister grants a certificate of naturalisation.

 

The conditions in which citizenship may be revoked (withdrawn)

Kenyan citizens by birth cannot be denied citizenship. Only those who have registered or naturalised citizenships may have them revoked if the person has been proved as being disloyal to Kenya by his conduct or speech, if the legislation or naturalisation was obtained by false representation or by fraud, if the naturalised person has been imprisoned within the first five years of his legislation for 12 months without a pardon in any country and lastly if the naturalised or registered person has lived in another country for a continuous period of seven years and not in the service of Kenya since he became a citizen.

 

The rights and freedoms that Kenyan citizens are entitled to enjoy

 

Right to own property

Every citizen in Kenya has a right to own property in any area of the country.

 

Right to life

One should not be deprived of his or her life intentionally. This implies that no person is supposed to murder another or commit suicide. Anyone who does any of these two is prosecuted in a court of law.

 

The right to liberty

No one should be imprisoned or detained without good reason. Also no one should be enslaved by the other. A person who is arrested must be taken to court within a specified period (maximum 24 hours).

 

Freedom of conscience and religion

Every Kenyan citizen has a right to take an active part in a religion of his or her own choice and think freely. The religion one joins should be legally registered.

 

 

Freedom of expression

One is free to hold an opinion without interference from the government. At the same time one is not allowed to incite anybody against the government.

 

Freedom of movement

One is free to move to any part of Kenya or live in any part of this country. Kenyans should therefore allow fellow Kenyans to move freely without interference. There are legally prohibited areas where one is not allowed to trespass for example private homes and state house.

 

Freedom of speech

One is free to say anything so long as it does not interfere with other people’s freedoms or go against the government.

 

Right of protection from discrimination

All people in Kenya are supposed to receive fair treatment irrespective of their sex (gender), race, tribe, political opinion and colour. Everyone therefore deserves mutual respect and honour.

 

Right of protection against arbitrary search and entry

Nobody should be searched without his consent or a valid court warrant. The police can search individuals houses if they are suspected of crimes such as theft or if they have escaped from prison and also if they house seditious documents. In this case the police must produce search warrants.

 

Right of protection from the law of land

A person who is charged with a criminal offence must be offered a fair hearing within a reasonable time by a court of law. This time should not go beyond twenty four (24) hours unless during public holidays and weekends.

 

Right of protection from torture and any other insecurity

No one should be tortured for any reason at all even by police after arrest because the law assumes an individual to be innocent until proved guilty by a court of law.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The situations in which Kenyan citizens may be denied some of their rights and freedoms:

 

Kenya citizens may be denied some of their rights and freedoms if they interfere with those of other people. They will also be denied some of their freedom if they misuse their rights and freedoms with the aim of destabilising the country by causing instability, by criticising the government or by dispersing seditious publications with the aim of destabilising the country.

One can be denied the freedom of religion if he uses it wrongly to undermine the government or to disunite Kenyans. There may be a great need for the government to take individuals’ land for public use e.g. for road, hospitals or schools. In this case the individuals has to be compensated.

In times of war the government may limit the freedom of movement by curfew or by declaring a state of emergency. People may be denied freedom of speech if they begin uttering false statements about other people or when they incite people against the government with the aim of causing instability in the government.

 

The occasion in which a person is likely to be denied the right to personal liberty in Kenya

 

• In case of having unsound mind e.g. if a person is mad or crazy.
• Incase a person is a drug addict.
• Incase of a person being infected by a contagious disease.
• Incase one is under 18 years he can be denied personal liberty to enable him acquire education.
• Incase one is a convicted criminal.

 

Limitations on freedom of speech

 

One may be denied freedom of speech if one makes untrue utterances about another individual or against the government.

One is not allowed to publish seditious documents and also to incite other members of the community against the government. Finally, one is not allowed to talk ill against the President.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The occasions in which a person in Kenya (Kenya citizen) is likely to be denied the right to life

 

One can be denied the right to life during the time of war. One can be killed the time a rebellion or a riot is being suppressed.

In the process of preventing a criminal offence the police can stop intended robbery by shooting suspects. It can also occur in the course of defending one’s property or oneself.

Lastly, a person can also be denied the right to life by being convicted by a court of law especially if one is found guilty of murder.

 

Limitations of the freedom of worship

 

• One is not allowed to preach with the intention of inciting people to cause instability in the country.
• One is not allowed to preach in a way which is likely to disunite the people of Kenya.
• One is not allowed to use religion wrongly with the intention of undermining the government in any way whatsoever.

 

How the bill of rights in Kenya constitution protects the right of the individual.

 

1. An individual is guaranteed the right to life. If one murders or commits suicide, he is punishable by law.
2. An individual is guaranteed right to own property. If one interferes with another person’s property he is liable to prosecution in a court of law.
3. An individual is guaranteed freedom of conscience. In this case one is entitled the right to think and worship.
4. An individual is guaranteed freedom of association or assembly. Individuals therefore are free to assemble and associate with people of their own choice without harassment.
5. An individual is guaranteed the right to worship and join a religion of his choice.
6. The bill of rights protects a person against arbitrary search, detention and arrest.
7. It provides freedom of movement of the individual. One has right to move freely in any part of the country.

 

 

 

1. An individual is protected from being enslaved or being forced to supply unpaid labour.
2. The bill or rights provides the individual with freedom of expression or speech through writing and talking.

 

The responsibilities of a good citizen.

 

Kenyans conducting voting exercise

A good Kenyan citizen is one who is ready     to obey all the Kenyan laws in order to maintain peace and order in the country. He is one who participates in development projects such as roads, dispensaries, hospitals and schools – which help to improve the welfare of the people of Kenya.

A good citizen is also one who participates in the democratic process by getting involved in voting to elect the most responsible representatives of the people in both the parliament and the local authorities.

 

The elements of good citizenship

 

A good citizen will demonstrate the following:

• High degree of patriotism. This may be demonstrated by full participation in development projects and respect of the law.
• High degree of honesty in all what one does.
• High degree of generosity.
• Always being well informed in all activities taking place in one’s country so that one can participate fully in the democratic process, in public meetings and in the elections.
• Always being free to air views on all issues affecting the people and the country at large.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Review Questions.

 

1. What does the term citizenship imply?
2. In which ways may one become a citizen of Kenya?
3. How may citizenship be with held?
4. Explain the circumstances which may compel the government to interfere with the:
5. i) Freedom of speech
6. ii) Right to life

 

5.  Outline the rights and freedoms contained in the Bill of Rights in Kenya.

6. Describe the qualities of a good citizen.

 

CHAPTER 8.

 

NATIONAL INTEGRATION.

 

The meaning of National integration meaning and importance.

 

National integration is the process of uniting all the people of Kenya irrespective of their cultures, occupations, religions, races and ethnic groups into one solid and responsible nation. National integration is important because:

1. It encourages socialisation of people of different races, cultures, religion and ethnic groups.
2. it encourages rapid economic and social developments in the country for example trade, games and sports.

• It brings national stability by ensuring that there is security in the country

1. It promotes national building.
2. It enables the nation to prosper.
3. It enhances patriotism and nationalism.

• It fuses various communities of Kenya into one
• It causes people to develop a sense of pride for their nation.

1. It encourages foreigners to visit our country.
2. It encourages teamwork when solving national problems like the problem of drought, famine and epidemics.

 

The factors promoting national unity.

 

National language:

This makes it possible for people of different communities to communicate with one another. Kiswahili and English help to achieve this goal.

 

The constitution:

It protects Kenya citizens from any kind of discrimination. It provides equal opportunities for all Kenyans.

 

Education:

This helps Kenyans children to meet, mix and interact freely. It helps Kenyans to develop a sense of belonging and desire to serve the nation whole-heartedly.

 

 

 

 

 

School children socialising  on their way to school.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Equal distribution of resources:

Schools, clean water and health centres should be distributed fairly and equally to serve the needs of all Kenyans.

 

Social economic interactions:

This occurs when people undertake social and economic activities such as trading , games and conducting marriage ceremonies .

 

His Excellency Mwai Kibaki, President of the Republic of Kenya

The Presidency:

All Kenyans are united under one President

who they respect and honour. The President

is in charge of the entire nation. He links the

nation with the rest of the world.

 

The factors which play the role of

limiting national unity.

 

Tribalism:       Favouring people of ones own

tribe on matters pertaining to

employment, economic benefits,

educational privileges and

promotions.

 

Nepotism:  Favouring relatives.

 

 

Racism/Racialism:  Favouring people of ones race for example favouring

Africans and discriminating Asians.

 

Religious differences:            This is division along religious lines due to different

beliefs and practices.

 

Corruption:    This is giving or asking for bribes in order to offer services to

others. It also includes misuse of public funds.

 

Uneven economic development: This is when some areas are more economically developed than others in terms of means of communication, agricultural research centres, industry and trade.

 

The meaning of the term “conflict”

 

Conflict may imply a state of war or battle or a struggle of some kind or a long fight. It may also imply a situation whereby ideas or beliefs differ. This may result to ideological and religious differences. It may imply a disagreement or clash. Conflict may also be quarrels or sharp arguments.

 

Various types of conflicts

 

• Political conflicts: Examples are wars, battles, ethnic clashes.
• Religious conflicts.
• Cultural conflicts.
• Ideological conflicts
• Conflict of laws.
• Conflict of opinion.
• Family conflict.
• Ethnic conflicts.

 

The issues which may cause conflict

 

1. Misunderstanding of people or nations.
2. Differing ideologies/ideological differences.
3. Disunity of various people or nations.
4. Struggle for power and material wealth.
5. Formation of different classes of people due to social stratification.
6. Inferiority and superiority complexes.
7. Struggle for leadership.

The methods of resolving conflicts.

1. Use of dialogue/talking to agree.
2. Trying to develop understanding through settling the differences between people or nations or through establishing political relations which enable them to solve problems amicably
3. Forming commercial/trade partnership.
4. Developing communication links to facilitate quicker solving of disputes.
5. Signing of peace agreements or treaties and sometimes engaging arbitrators.
6. Settling religious differences through use of ecumenical organisations and programmes.
7. Encouraging equitable distribution and ownership of property and wealth.
8. Promoting responsibility, accountability, respect, honesty, charity and pursuit for peace.
9. Forming national and international organisations aimed at promoting peace and harmony in the world or between nations and also between various people in a nation.

 

The process of resolving conflicts

First identify the type of conflict in question. Secondly isolate the people or parties involved in the conflict. Then cross-examine the major causes of the conflict. Engage an impartial or neutral arbitrator. Now use dialogue as a way of settling the dispute. Incase of a stalemate or deadlock, engage more and more arbitrators. They should maintain a high degree of neutrality and understanding.

Try to exhaust the available ways, means as well as the existing machinery for resolving conflicts. You may involve neutral leaders, elders, lawyers, opinion leaders and all other kinds of mediators. Also refer to the way similar issues were dealt with in the past. If the outcome was negative then forget about it and try your own.

If the parties agree, then they should sign binding agreements or treaties which clearly explain what is expected of them in future. If the parties fail to agree, encourage constant meetings aimed at resolving the conflict and also employ as many mediators or arbitrators as possible until an agreement is reached.

It is therefore important note that when resolving conflict methods such as Negotiation, mediation and arbitration are very necessary.

In negotiation one has to study the kind and nature of conflict and then analyse all the facts about that particular conflict. The conflicting states or individuals or groups are then assembled for discussion which continues until a lasting solution is reached. When this is achieved then an agreement is reached and the concerned sign as away of expressing their commitment.

• It should also be noted that an arbitrator or a mediator should be a neutral person who is not likely to favour any side. Arbitration should never include people who have vested interests, or people who are corrupt and can take bribes. Mediator should not include people who are related to any one group or individual or those involved in the dispute in question.

Various levels of conflict

• Interstate conflict: In this case a disagreement may arise between two countries. The causes of this may be boundary disputes, hatred between two heads of state, people of one country raiding people of the neighbouring country to capture or steal livestock, ideological differences and abuse of human rights and international laws.
• Conflict between two people: This is a very common level of conflict brought about by issues such as failure to pay debt, land ownership wrangle, family disagreement, political differences between individuals and jealousy.
• Conflict between a state and an individual: This is likely to occur especially when one is denied individual human rights for example, The government may take an individual’s land and fail to compensate it. Powerful individual may also grab public land and then the government struggles to repossess it once more for public interest.
• Conflict between two or more groups: some of the causes of this conflict may be stiff competition in business, land ownership claims, power struggle by rival political parties and religious differences which involve different religious groups or denominations.

The role of a mediator during resolving conflicts.

• A mediator explains the rules to be followed during the process of helping the parties to reach an agreement.
• A mediator acts as referee to ensure that no party interrupts the other when explaining the cause of conflicts.
• The mediator listens to the parties and compiles the facts which he later uses to help reach an agreement.
• The mediator gives his own solutions and the parties give out their suggestions.
• If an agreement is reached the mediator records it and the parties concerned are requested to honour and show commitment to it.

Review Questions.

1. i) What is the meaning of National Integration
2. ii) Why should there be National Integration
3. Describe the factors that may limit National Unity.
4. Define the term conflict.
5. Identify the main methods of resolving conflicts.
6. How can conflicts affect the running of schools in Kenya?
7. Discuss the process of resolving conflicts.
8. Identify the ways through which conflicts may be avoided.

Name: …………………………       Adm No: ………

Class: …….…………………       Candidate’s Sign: ……………………

Date: ………………………………………………………

101/1

ENGLISH (Functional Skills)

TIME: 2 HOURS 

END OF TERM 2 EXAM 

Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education (K.C.S.E.)

FORM FOUR

English

(Functional Skills)

2 hours

INSTRUCTIONS TO CANDIDATES:-

• Write your Name, Admission number and Class in the spaces provided above.
• Sign and write the date of examination in the spaces provided above.
• Answer all questions in this question paper.

For Examiner’s Use Only:

Question	Maximum Score	Candidate’s Score
1	20
2	10
3	30
TOTAL SCORE	60

 

1. QUESTION 1  :  FUNCTIONAL WRITING                                                                     (20 mks)

You have recently read an interesting novel which you feel can be recommended as a class reader for the form two students. Write a book review of that novel.

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2. Read the passage below and fill in the blanks with the most appropriate word.    (10mks)

Addiction is an escape (1)……………………..reality, and different people will find different (2)…………………….  to escape from the real word. They can be addicted to food water, power, work, gambling, sex, love (3) …………………… even to destructive relationships. Do these belong in the same category (4)……………… alcohol or drugs? And if so, does recovery from those “people addictions” work the same way as with alcohol and drugs?

 

Addicts look for substitutes, and (5)………..…….reason behind this is always the same: to escape, to close one eye and not to (6)………………..the facts. By becoming fat, the overeater insulates himself from the world around. It is better to be rejected (7)………………….the way they look, than for who they are as a person. Thus, being fat becomes a way to avoid the risk of intimacy. There are people who are (8)………………… to work.   (9)……………………………..will go home late, just to avoid interaction with the family. Workaholism is a dysfunctional attempt to earn self – esteem by …………….Productive.

3. Oral skills (30marks)

 

• Read the poem below and answer the questions that follow.

 

I wonder by the edge

Of this desolate lake

Where wind cries in the sledge

Until the axle break

That keeps the stars in their round

And hands hurt in the deep

The banners of east and west

And the girdle of light is unbound,

Your breast will not lie by the breast

Of your beloved in sleep

• Describe the rhyme scheme of the poem.           (2mks)

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

• Indentify and illustrate any two sound pattern used in the poem           (4mks)

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

• How would you say the last two lines of the poem?           (2mks)

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

• Give homophones for the following words used in the poem (2mks)

Wonder –

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Break-

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

 

 

• Underline the word that is said differently from the sets of words given below. (4mks)
• Fairy             ferry                           furry
• Floor             flower                         flour
• Pear pare                             peer
• Canal kernel                          colonel
• During a presentation you were interrupted severally by some members of the audience. Give three reasons why the audience would do so.                                                             (3mks)

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

• Classify the words below according to the pronunciation of sounds /s/ and   /z/

See, raise, miser, pieces, waste, days                                                                                    (3mks)

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

• You have been summoned in a court of law after being arrested in a swoop targeting hawkers.

You have been put on your defence                                                                                       (10marks)

 

Prosecutor: is your name James Wambua

 

You: ……………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

(2marks)

 

Prosecutor: (addressing the magistrate) sorry for that mix – up your honour the name is James Wambura not James Wambua.

( to the defendant) You are accused of contravening the city by  laws CAP 16/2B of the county Government by hawking goods without a license. What is your plea?

 

You: ……………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

(2marks)

Prosecutor: If you were truly coming from school, would you prove to this court that you are really a student?

 

You: ……………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

(2marks)

Prosecutor: (passing some document to the magistrate) your honour the document looks genuine and has a school stamp (To the defendant) but exactly where were you arrested and what were you doing there at that time?

 

You: ……………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

(2marks)

Prosecutor: (to the magistrate) your honour since the accused is a minor, I have no intention of proceeding with the prosecution of this case.

Magistrate: alright: case dismissed.

 

You: ……………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

 

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

(2marks)

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PAPER 1

ENGLISH (Functional Skills)

NB: but have a layout of a book review

Format: title of the book

Author

Publisher

Year of publication

Number of pages

Price

Reviewer

Body:

• Mention setting of the text i.e. when and where?
• Give a brief summary of the plot
• Highlight the main characters
• Highlight the main theme(s)
• Mention the stylistic devices used
• Give the strengths (1mk) and weaknesses (1mk) of the work.
• Conclude by giving a recommendation of the book eg whether or not you can recommend the book to other readers (1mk)

Language: (06 marks)

NB; Format (6mks)

Content (8 mks)

Language (6 mks)

Total (20mks)

 

Cloze test

1. from
2. ways
3. and
4. as
5. the
6. face
7. for
8. addicted
9. They (T must be a capital letter)
10. being

 

3.(b) (i) furry

(ii) floor

(iii) peer

(iv) canal

1. – if they did not hear what you said.

– when they strongly disagree with you (the speaker)

– when they wished that you clarify unclear issues

– when they wanted to make an additional to the speakers point

– when you ( the speaker) had misinterpreted certain known facts.

 

/s/                                            /z/

See                                          raise

Pieces                                      miser

Waste                                      days

 

3.(a) (i) ab   ab   cd   ec  ed (1mk)  irregular rhyme  scheme

 

(ii) Alliteration ( 1 mk) where wind     /hands  hurt/

 

Breast …..by

 

Assonance (1mk) the    edge (1mk)    /wind …….in

 

Rhyme (1mk)   edges} deep

Sledge} sleep

 

(iii)      (a)       I would wear/ put on a sad facial expression

To bring out the unhappy/sad/forlorn/cheerless mood of the persona.

(b)       would say them in a low and sad tone to bring out the persona’s sadness

(c)       I would say them in a falling intonation because they are statements

NB: any one explained point 1×2 = 2 marks

 

(iv)  – wander

• Brake

 

(e)  – No, your honour, I am James Wambura (2mks)

– Not guilty your honour (1mk) I am not a hawker, I am a student and on that day I was coming from school. (1 mk)

– Your honour, I have with me a leave out chit that I was given at school. (2mks)

– Your honour, I was arrested at the open air markert where I had gone to have a hair cut. ( 2 mks)

– thank you very much your honour (1mk) I promise to be always at the right place at the right time.

Kassu Jet KCSE Exam Papers Plus Marking Schemes (All Subjects)

BIOLOGY PAPER 1 QUESTIONS.pdf
BIOLOGY PAPER 1 QUESTIONS.docx
BIOLOGY PAPER 1 SCHEME.docx
BIOLOGY PAPER 2 SCHEME.docx
BIOLOGY PAPER 3 CONFIDENTIAL.docx
BIOLOGY PAPER 3 QUESTIONS.DOCX
BIOLOGY PAPER 3 SCHEME.DOCX
BIOLOGY PAPER3 QUESTIONS & SCHEME.docx
CHEMISTRY PAPER 1 QUESTIONS.pdf
CHEMISTRY PAPER 1 SCHEME.pdf
CHEMISTRY PAPER 2 QUESTIONS.docx
CHEMISTRY PAPER 2 QUESTIONS.pdf
CHEMISTRY PAPER 3 QUESTIONS.docx
CHEMISTRY PAPER 3 SCHEME.pdf
CHEMSITRY PAPER 3 CONFIDENTIAL.docx
COMPUTER PAPER 1 QUESTIONS.pdf
COMPUTER STUDIES PAPER 2 QUESTIONS.docx
ENGLISH PAPER 1 QUESTIONS.doc
ENGLISH PAPER 1 SCHEME.docx
ENGLISH PAPER 2 QUESTIONS.docx
ENGLISH PAPER 3 QUESTIONS.docx
ENGLISH PAPER 3 SCHEME.docx
GEOGRAPHY PAPER 1 QUESTIONS.docx
GEOGRAPHY PAPER 1 SCHEME.docx
GEOGRAPHY PAPER 2 QUESTIONS FF.docx
GEOGRAPHY PAPER 2 SCHEME.docx
KISW PP1 MS.docx
KISWAHILI PAPER 1 QUESTIONS (2).docx
KISWAHILI PAPER 1 QUESTIONS (2).pdf
KISWAHILI PAPER 1 QUESTIONS.docx
KISWAHILI PAPER 1 SCHEME (2).docx
KISWAHILI PAPER 1 SCHEME.docx
KISWAHILI PAPER 2 QUESTIONS.docx
KISWAHILI PAPER 2 QUESTIONS.pdf
KISWAHILI PAPER 2 SCHEME.docx
KISWAHILI PAPER 3 KASSU.docx
KISWAHILI PAPER 3 QUESTIONS.docx
MATHEMATICS PAPER 1 QUESTIONS (2).docx
MATHEMATICS PAPER 1 QUESTIONS.docx
MATHEMATICS PAPER 1 SCHEME.pdf
MATHEMATICS PAPER 2 QUESTIONS.docx
MATHEMATICS PAPER 2 SCHEME.pdf
MUSIC PAPER 1 SIGHT READING (2).docx
MUSIC PAPER 1 SIGHT READING.docx
PHYSICS PAPER 1 QUESTIONS.docx
PHYSICS PAPER 1 SCHEME.pdf
PHYSICS PAPER 2 QUESTIONS.docx
PHYSICS PAPER 2 SCHEME.pdf
PHYSICS PAPER 3 QUESTIONS.docx
PHYSICS PAPER 3 QUESTIONS.pdf

311/1

HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT

PAPER 1

TIME 2 ^½ HOURS

QUESTIONS & MARKING SCHEME

SECTION A (25 MARKS)

1. Name two types of Australopithecus.             (2mks)

• Australopithecus Anamensis.
• Australopithecus Afarensis.
• Australopithecus Africanus.
• Australopithecus Robustus | Boisei.

2. Identify one community that belong to the plain Nilotes.             (1mks)

3. Mention two importance of age-set among the Nandi community during pre-colonial period.                         (2mks)

• It provided unity.
• It provided warriors to defend the community.
• It gives a sense of belonging/identity.

4. Give two ancient documents that contained the historical information about East African coast before the 7^th             (2mks)

• The Graeco– Roman Documentary.
• ThePeriplus of the Erythrean Sea.
• The writings of Claudia Ptolemy known as “Geography”.
• Document of Arab Merchants like Ibn Batuta and al Masudi.

 

5. Mention one peaceful method of conflict resolution.             (1mks)

• Arbitration / use arbitrator/court to solve the conflict.
• Diplomacy /Negotiation – making the two conflict parties to come to understanding.
• Legislation- using of law/legislation passed by parliament to solve conflict.
• Use of elders- two conflicting parties come before the elders and come up with solution/ agreement.
• Religious actions- use of religious leaders to solve conflict.
• Community policing- use of local people to help in solving conflict / ensure peaceful co- existence.
• Mediation/use of mediators

6. State one function of the constitution.             (1mks)

• It provides legal ground on which laws are made.
• It spells out powers of the government and its relation to the people governed.
• It spells out the rights and duties of citizens.
• It spells out punishment for lawbreakers

7. Identify two rights of the old member of the society.             (2mks)

• To participate in the national affairs.
• To pursue their personal development.
• To live in dignity and respect.
• To receive reasonable care from family and state.

8. Name the person who came up with the indirect rule policy used in Kenya by the colonial government.             (1mks)

• Captain Fredrick Lugard.

9. State two problems faced by the independent schools and churches in Kenya during the colonial era.             (2mks)

• Harassment by missionary and colonial government.
• Lack of trained personnel’s.
• Lack of funds.
• Leadership wrangles.
• Competition with missionaries.

 

10. Identify the main borne of contention between KADU and KANU in the eve of independence.                                                 (1mk)

• KADU was for the federal constitution | Majimbo while KANU was for the Unitary government.

11. Outline two guiding principles of the electoral system in Kenya.             (2mks)

• Freedom to exercise political rights.
• 2/3 rule (i.e) not more than 2/3 of elective positions come from the same gender.
• Fair representation of persons with disabilities.
• Universal suffrage where all adults have right to vote and equality of votes.
• Free and fair election based on secret ballot.
• Independent and transparent elections

 

12. Give one reason why Kenya adopted the National Philosophy of African socialism after independence             (1mks)

• To create a new society different from colonial one.
• To create a just and human society.
• To create united and free country with democratic rights and freedoms.

13. State two components included in the budget estimates in the National Budget. (2mks)

• The revenue required.
• The source of revenue.
• The projects intended to carry out.

14. Mention one member of the County Executive Committee.             (1mks)

• County Governor.
• Deputy County Governor.
• Members appointed by the Governor/county executive committee members.

15. Highlight two roles played by the trade unions in the struggle for independence. (2mks)

• The improved working condition for workers.
• They provided alternative forum which kept the spirit of nationalism burning when political parties were banned.
• They looked for international community support by exposing oppression experienced under colonial government.
• They prepared trade unionist to become leaders in political association which fought for independent/ training ground for political leaders.
• They assisted those who fought for independence.
• They educated people on their political rights.

16. State the main reason why the 1957 elections are important in the history of Kenya.

(1mks)

• It was the first elections where Africans were elected as members of Legco by fellow Africans.

17. Who is the chief administrator and accounting officer of parliament?             (1mks)

• The clerk of the parliament.

 

SECTION B (45 MARKS)

18. (a) Give three communities that belong to the coastal Bantus.             (3mks)

1×3=3

(b) Discuss six effects of the migration and settlement of the Cushites in Kenya. (12mks)

• Increased warfare for control of limited resources e.g the conflict between Somali and Oromo.
• Displacement of some communities who had settled in the region earlier e.g the Bantu.
• Cultural interaction with the neighborse.g the Bantu learnt about age-set and circumcision from the Cushites.
• Intermarriages among neighboring communities.
• Redistribution of population in the region where they settled.
• Assimilation and absorption of some communities.
• Enrichment of languages due to borrowing of words from neighboring communities.
• Increased trade in the regions they occupied as they traded with their neighbors.
• Population increase in the areas they settled.

 

2×6=12

19. (a) Identify five positive impacts of the Portuguese rule at coast of East Africa. (5mks)

• The Portuguese introduced new crops e.g sweet potatoes, pawpaw etc.
• Built fort Jesus which is today used as a museum andtourist attraction..
• Introduced birds dropping as manure and crop rotation.
• Added some words to Kiswahili e.gMeza and Mvinyo/vocabulary/improved language.
• Introduced Portuguese architecture which was used to build houses by coastal people.
• During their rule,the Kenyan coast developed strong ties with Indians
• They tried to introduce Christianity at the coast.
• Led to the opening up of the coast to other European powers.

1×5=5

(b) Explain five Negative effects of the Indian Ocean Trade.                      (10mks)

• Decline of local industry due to importation of better goods from Europe and Asia.
• Destruction of wildlife especially elephant due to increased demand for ivory.
• High demand of slaves led to increased warfare among communities as they tried to capture slave for sale.
• Slave trade led to draining away of able bodied people from East Africa which led to underdevelopment of the region.
• The trade led to exposure of East Africa to Europeans which eventually led to colonization.
• The trade led to loss of African culture and adoption of Swahili culture at the coast.
• Depopulation of the interior after the capture of many slaves

2×5=10

 

 

20. (a) Highlight five results of the Akamba reaction to the British rule in Kenya. (5mks)

• Loss of independence.
• Land alienation for Europeans settlement.
• Loss of lives as many people were killed during the resilience.
• Destruction of properties e.g villages.
• Loss of livestock through confiscation by the British.
• Heavy taxation.
• Recruitment into kings African Rifles.
• Rise of wealth class traders especially those that collaborated with the British.
• Spread of Christianity.
• Enmity between those who collaborated and those who resisted.

1×5=5

(b) Discuss five methods used by the colonial government to obtain labour for the white settlers. (10mk)

• Use of master servant ordinance that made it an offence for Africans to evade duty/laws.
• Low wages ensuring that Africans were lowly paid and thus remained permanently servants to Europeans.
• Forced recruitment whereby Africans were forced to work for the Europeans
• Use of Native ordinance which made sure that all male adults were registered to facilitate labour recruitment.
• Creation of reserves where Africans enjoyed limited resources, thus forced to work for the Europeans.
• The Kipande system that prevented Africans from deserting from their white employers.
• Africans were prohibited from growing of cash crops to ensure that they could only get cash by working for settlers.
• Confiscation of their livestock which made African poor and thus seek employment from their white seller.
• Taxation e.g hut tax and poll tax which made the Africans to work and get money to pay these taxes.

 

2×5=10

21. (a) Give three political parties that were formed after 1945 which were involved in the struggle for independence in Kenya.             (3mks)

• KAU – Kenya African Union.
• KANU – Kenya African National Union.
• KADU – Kenya African Democratic Union.
• APP – Africans People’s Party.

NB; NAMES MUST BE WRITTEN IN FULL

1×3=3

(b) State and Explain six challenges facing culture and sports in Kenya since independence.                                                                                                       (12mks)

• Inadequate facilities- lack of recreational and sports facilities/stadia/studios especially in rural areas.
• Poor remuneration – Those people involved in music, sports, drama are poorly paid.
• Exploitation on royalty payments: Those involved in music industry, arts and drama are exploited through payments imposed on them.
• Inadequate funds – lack of adequate funds to enhance cultural programmes.
• Piracy – there is piracy of local artist work thus denying them income.
• Misappropriation of funds/ corruption ;money meant for culture have been misappropriated by those in the high positions
• Nepotism when selecting teams/ players
• Lack of well established structures for nurturing talents

2×6=12

SECTION C (30 MARKS)

22. (a) Give five characteristics of a good constitution.             (5mks)

• Clarity – a good constitution ought to spell out its content clearly.
• Comprehensive- it should be comprehensive and address issues in details to avoid misunderstanding.
• Flexible – it should be flexible to accommodate any change in the state.
• Bill of rights: it should state clearly the bills of rights of the citizens.
• Durable: it should last for a reasonable time without requiring amendment.
• Amendment: it should have provision for amendments and state clearly which sections can be amended and which ones cannot be amended.

1×5=5

 

(b) Discuss five factors that promotes national integration in Kenya.                    (10mks)

• The constitution: it creates a unitary state and protects all citizens against discrimination on whatever basis as well as guaranteeing equality of all citizens.
• Education – schools bring together children from different ethnic communities and make them think of themselves as Kenyans. The school curriculum also stresses more on the importance of unity.
• Fair distribution of resources – this helps the citizen to feel one as they share resources fairly and also the development of all parts of the country.
• Social economic interaction- people interact in many ways like inter-community marriage | playing games | trade | working together etc. all this helps to promote unity.
• National currency – the use of a common currency in business transaction and payment for employed people make people united.
• National language – the use of Kiswahili as a national language helps people to communicate freely and share ideas which promote unity.
• National philosophies: the use of national philosophies such as African socialism, Harambeesm and Nyayoism promotes unity.
• National symbols : sharing of common national symbols i.e national flag, national anthem, the coat of arms and the public seal make people united.
• Government institution – the government institution like the legislature, judiciary and the executive serves all people equally thereby promoting unity.
• National events and days: the national days like Mashujaa day, Jamuhuri day Madaraka day and events such as music and drama festivals bring people from different ethnic communities together thus promoting unity.
• The presidency serves as a symbol of national unity

5X2=10

23. (a) Identify threeNational Security Organs in the Kenyan government             (3mks)

• The Kenyan Defense Forces (KDF)
• The Kenyan National Intelligent Service (KNIS)
• The Kenya Police Service (KPS)

1X3=3

 

(b) Explain six powers of the President of Kenya according to the new constitution of 2010.                                                                                                                                 (12mks)

• He is the commander in chief of the defense forces.
• Has power to exercise executive authority of the republic.
• Has power to uphold and safeguard the constitution and the sovereignty of the republic.
• Power of mercy or pardoning persons convicted of an offence.
• Power to nominate, appoint or dismiss cabinet secretaries, judges of superior courts and state officers whom the constitution require the president to appoint.
• Power to confer honors to the distinguished people in the republic of Kenya.
• He is the chairperson of the National Security Council.
• He has powers to assent/ veto bills before they become law

2×6=12

24. (a) State five importance of the Government Budget.             (5mks)

• It enables the government to explain to the public the tax structure.
• Enables the government source revenue for its programmes.
• It enables the government to identify ways to spend its revenue without wastage.
• It helps the government to prioritize its development projects.
• It helps to provide valuable information to those who want to invest in the country.
• It creates confidence among the foreign countries and the donors like World Bank, International Monetary Fund etc.
• It helps the government to evaluate its performance and improve where necessary.
• It enhances accountability and transparency of the government in the eyes of the people.
• It ensures that there is balance in the country’s revenue and expenditure thus avoiding deficits.
• It helps the government to set aside some funds in case of emergencies.

1×5=5

 

(b) In which five ways does the National Government control the use of public finance?

(10mks)

• Ensuring that at the beginning of every year a budget is prepared showing the estimate of revenue and the expenditure.
• Parliament passes legislation prescribing how National Government may borrow money.
• The cabinet secretary in charge of finance report to the relevant committee on the use of money, debt and the progress of the repayments of loans.
• Parliament passes legislation to ensure expenditure control, transparency and ensure implementation of the government programmes.
• Cabinet secretary for finance has powers to stop the transfer of funds to a state organ in event of mismanagement.
• The government have established a system of open tendering for procurement and disposal of goods and services.
• The controller of budget supervises on the implementation of the budget and makes a report to parliament after every four months.
• The auditor general audits government ministries and departments and submit report to the parliament.
• The principal secretaries are accountable to the National Assembly for financial management within the ministries.
• The Ethics and Anti- Corruption Commission investigates and recommend those who mismanage public funds to be prosecuted in the court of law.
• The public accounts and public investiments committees are established by parliament to ensure proper use of public funds.

2×5=10

Biology Notes

Form Two

 

TRANSPORT IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS.

Introduction

• Transport is the movement of substances within an organism.
• All living cells require oxygen and food for various metabolic processes.
• These substances must be transported to the cells.
• Metabolic processes in the cells produce excretory products which should be eliminated before they accumulate.
• The excretory products should be transported to sites of excretion.
• Organisms like amoeba are unicellular.
• They have a large surface area to volume ratio.
• The body is in contact with the environment.
• Diffusion is adequate to transport substances across the cell membrane and within the organism.
• Large multicellular organisms have complex structure where cells are far from each other hence diffusion alone cannot meet the demand for supply and removal of substances.
• Therefore an elaborate transport system is necessary.

 

Transport in plants

• Simple plants such as mosses and liverworts lack specialized transport system.
• Higher plants have specialized transport systems known as the vascular bundle.
• Xylem transports water and mineral salts .
• Phloem transports dissolved food substances like sugars.

 

Internal structure of roots and root hairs

 

• The main functions of roots are ;
• Anchorage
• storage
• gaseous exchange.
• The outermost layer in a root is the
• This is a special epidermis of young roots whose cells give rise to root hairs.
• Root hairs are microscopic outgrowths of epidermal cells.
• They are found just behind the root tip,
• They are one cell thick for efficient absorption of substances.
• They are numerous and elongated providing a large surface area for absorption of water and mineral salts.
• Root hairs penetrate the soil and make close contact with it.
• Below the peliferous layer is the cortex.
• This is made up of loosely packed, thin walled parenchyma cells.
• Water molecules pass through this tissue to reach the vascular bundles.
• In some young plant stems, cortex cells contain chloroplasts.
• The endodermis (starch sheath) is a single layer of cells with starch grains.
• The endodermis has a casparian strip which has an impervious deposit controlling the entry of water and mineral salts into xylem vessels.
• Pericyc1e forms a layer next to the endodermis.
• Next to the pericycle is the vascular tissue.
• In the Dicotyledonous root, xylem forms a star shape in the centre, with phloem in between the arms.
• It has no pith. In monocotyledonous root, xylem alternates with phloem and there is a pith in the centre.

 

Internal structure of a root hair cell

 

The Stem

• The main functions of the stem are;
• support and exposure of leaves and flowers to the environment,
• conducting water and mineral salts
• conducting manufactured food from leaves to other parts of the plant.
• In monocotyledonous stems, vascular bundles are scattered all over the stem, while in dicotyledonous stems vascular bundles are arranged in a ring.
• Vascular bundles are continuous from root to stems and leaves.
• The epidermis forms a single layer of cells enclosing other tissues.
• The outer walls of the cells have waxy cuticle to prevent excessive loss of water.
• The cortex is a layer next to the epidermis.
• It has collenchyma, parenchyma and schlerenchyma cells.

 

Collenchyma

• Is next to the epidermis and has thickened walls at the corners which strengthen the stem.

 

Parenchyma

• Cells are irregular in shape, thin walled and loosely arranged hence creating intercellular spaces filled with air.
• They are packing tissues and food storage areas.

Sclerenchyma

• Cells are closely connected to vascular bundles.
• These cells are thickened by deposition of lignin and they provide support to plants.

Pith

• Is the central region having parenchyma cells.

 

 

Absorption of Water and Mineral Salts Absorption of Water

 

• Root hair cell has solutes in the vacuole and hence a higher osmotic pressure than the surrounding soil water solution.
• Water moves into the root hair cells by osmosis along a concentration gradient.
• This makes the sap in the root hair cell to have a lower osmotic pressure than the surrounding cells.
• Therefore water moves from root hair cells into the surrounding cortex cells by osmosis.
• The process continues until the water gets into the xylem vessels .

 

Uptake of Mineral Salts

 

• If the concentration of mineral salts in solution is greater than its concentration in root hair cell, the mineral salts enter the root hair cell by diffusion.
• If the concentration of mineral salts in the root hair cells is greater than in the soil water, the mineral salts enter the root hairs by active transport.
• Most minerals are absorbed in this way.
• Mineral salts move from cell to cell by active transport until they reach the xylem vessel.
• Once inside the xylem vessels, mineral salts are transported in solution as the water moves up due to root pressure, capillary attraction and cohesion and adhesion forces.

 

Transpiration

 

• Transpiration is the process by which plants lose water in the form of water vapour into the atmosphere.
• Water is lost through stomata, cuticle and lenticels.
• Stomatal transpiration:
• This accounts for 80-90% of the total transpiration in plants.
• Stomata are found on the leaves.

 

• Cuticular transpiration:
• The cuticle is found on the leaves, and a little water is lost through it.
• Plants with thick cuticles do not lose water through the cuticle.

 

• Lenticular transpiration
• Is loss’ of water through lenticels.
• These are found on stems of woody plants.
• Water lost through the stomata and cuticle by evaporation leads to evaporation of water from surfaces of mesophyll cells .
• The mesophyll cells draw water from the xylem vessels by osmosis.
• The xylem in the leaf is continuous with xy lem in the stem and root.

 

Structure and function of Xylem

• Movement of water is through the xylem.
• Xylem tissue is made up of vessels and tracheids.

 

Xylem Vessels

• Xylem vessels are formed from cells that are elongated along the vertical axis and arranged end to end.
• During development, the cross walls and organelles disappear and a continuous tube is formed.
• The cells are dead and their walls are strengthened by deposition of lignin.
• The lignin has been deposited in various ways.
• This results in different types of thickening
• Simple spiral.
• Double spiral.

 

• The bordered pits are areas without lignin on xylem vessels and allow passage of water in and out of the lumen to neighbouring cells.

 

Tracheids

 

• Tracheids have cross-walls that are perforated.
• Their walls are deposited with lignin.
• Unlike the xylem vessels, their end walls are tapering or chisel-shaped.
• Their lumen is narrower.
• Besides transport of water, xylem has another function of strengthening the plant which is provided by xylem fibres and xylem parenchyma.

 

Xylem fibres ;

• Are cells that are strengthened with lignin.
• They form wood.

 

Xylem parenchyma:

• These are cells found between vessels.
• They form the packing tissue.

 

 

Forces involved in Transportation of Water and Mineral Salts

 

 

Transpiration pull

• As water vaporises from spongy mesophyll cells into sub-stomatal air spaces, the cell sap of mesophyll cells develop a higher osmotic pressure than adjacent cells.
• Water is then drawn into mesophyll cells by osmosis from adjacent cells and finally from xylem vessels.
• A force is created in the leaves which pulls water from xylem vessels in the stem and root.
• This force is called transpiration pull .

 

Cohesion and Adhesion:

• The attraction between water molecules is called cohesion.
• The attraction between water molecules and the walls of xylem vessels is called adhesion.
• The forces of cohesion and adhesion maintain a continuous flow of water in the xylem from the root to the leaves.

 

Capillarity:

• Is the ability of water to rise in fine capillary tubes due to surface tension.
• Xylem vessels are narrow, so water moves through them by capillarity.

 

Root Pressure:

• If the stem of a plant is cut above the ground level, it is observed that cell sap continues to come out of the cut surface.
• This shows that there is a force in the roots that pushes water up to the stem.
• This force is known as root pressure.

 

 

Importance of Transpiration

• Transpiration leads to excessive loss of water if unchecked.

Some beneficial effects are:

• Replacement of water lost during the process.
• Movement of water up the plant is by continuous absorption of water from the soil.
• Mineral salts are transported up the plant.
• Transpiration ensures cooling of the plant in hot weather.
• Excessive loss of water leads to wilting’ and eventually death if water is not available in the soil.

 

Factors Affecting Transpiration

The factors that affect transpiration are grouped into two.

• e. environmental and structural.

Environmental factors     

Temperature

• High temperature increases the internal temperature of the leaf .
• which in turn increases kinetic energy of water molecules which increases evaporation.
• High temperatures dry the air around the leaf surface maintaining a high concentration gradient.
• More water vapour is therefore lost from the leaf to the air.

Humidity

• The higher the humidity of the air around the leaf, the lower the rate of transpiration.
• The humidity difference between the inside of the leaf and the outside is called the saturation deficit.
• In dry atmosphere, the saturation deficit is high.
• At such times, transpiration rate is high.

 

Wind

• Wind carries away water vapour as fast as it diffuses out of the leaves.
• This prevents the air around the leaves from becoming saturated with vapour.
• On a windy day, the rate of transpiration is high.

 

Light Intensity

• When light intensity is high; more stomata open hence high rate of transpiration.

Atmospheric Pressure

• The lower the atmospheric pressure the higher the kinetic energy of water molecules hence more evaporation.
• Most of the plants at higher altitudes where atmospheric pressure is very low have adaptations to prevent excessive water-loss.

Availability of Water

• The more water there is in the soil, the more is absorbed by the plant and hence a lot of water is lost by transpiration.

 

Structural Factors

Cuticle

• Plants growing in arid or semi-arid areas have leaves covered with a thick waxy cuticle.

Stomata

• The more the stomata, the higher the rate of transpiration.
• Xerophytes have few stomata which reduce water-loss.
• Some have sunken stomata which reduces the rate of transpiration as the water vapour accumulates in the pits.
• Others have stomata on the lower leaf surface hence reducing the rate of water-loss.
• Some plants have reversed stomatal rhythm whereby stomata close during the day and open at night.
• This helps to reduce water-loss.

 

Leaf size and shape

• Plants in wet areas have large surface area for transpiration.
• Xerophytes have small narrow leaves to reduce water-loss.
• The photometer can be used to determine transpiration in different environmental conditions.

 

Translocation of organic compounds

• Translocation of soluble organic products of photosynthesis within a plant is called translocation.
• It occurs in phloem in sieve tubes.
• Substances translocated include glucose, amino acids, vitamins.
• These are translocated to the growing regions like stem, root apex, storage organs e.g. corms, bulbs and secretory organs such as nectar glands.

 

Phloem

 

phloem is made up of;

• sieve tubes,
• companion cells
• parenchyma, a packing tissue
• schlerenchyma, a strengthening tissue

 

 

Sieve Tubes

 

• These are elongated cells arranged end to end along the vertical axis.
• The cross walls are perforated by many pores to make a sieve plate.
• Most organelles disappear and those that remain are pushed to the sides of the sieve tube.
• Cytoplasmic strands pass through the pores in the plate into adjacent cells.
• Food substances are translocated through cytoplasmic strands.

Companion Cells

 

• Companion cells are small cells with large nuclei and many mitochondria.
• They are found alongside each sieve element.
• The companion cell is connected to the tube through plasmodesmata.
• The mitochondria generate energy required for translocation.

Phloem Parenchyma

 

• These are parenchyma cells between sieve elements.
• They act as packing tissue.

 

 

Transport in Animals

The Circulatory System

• Large and complex animals have circulatory systems that consist of tubes, a transport fluid and a means of pumping the fluid.

 

• Blood is the transport fluid which contains dissolved substances and cells.
• The tubes are blood vessels through which dissolved substances are circulated around the body.
• The heart is the pumping organ which keeps the blood in circulation.

 

 

The types of circulatory system exist in animals: open and closed.

 

• In an open circulatory system;
• The heart pumps blood into vessels which open into body spaces known as haemocoel.
• Blood comes into contact with tissues.

 

• A closed circulatory system;
• Found in vertebrates and annelids where the blood is confined within blood vessels and does not come into direct contact with tissues.

 

Transport in Insects

 

 

• In an insect, there is a tubular heart just above the alimentary canal.
• This heart is suspended in a pericardial cavity by ligaments.
• The heart has five chambers and extends along the thorax and abdomen .
• Blood is pumped forwards into the aorta by waves of contractions in the heart.
• It enters the haem ocoel and flows towards the posterior.
• The blood flows back into the heart through openings in each chamber called ostia.
• The ostia have valves which prevent the backflow of blood.

 

• Blood is not used as a medium for transport of oxygen in insects.
• This is because oxygen is supplied directly to the tissues by the tracheal system.
• The main functions of blood in an insect are to transport nutrients, excretory products and hormones.

 

 

 

Mammalian Circulatory System

 

• Mammals have a closed circulatory system where a powerful heart pumps blood into arteries.
• The arteries divide into smaller vessels called arterioles.
• Each arteriole divides to form a network of capillaries inside the tissues.
• The capillaries eventually re-unite to form venules, which form larger vessels called veins.
• The veins take the blood back to the heart.
• Blood from the heart goes through the pulmonary artery to the lungs and then back to the heart through pulmonary vein.
• This circulation is called pulmonary circulation.
• Oxygenated blood leaves the heart through the aorta and goes to all the tissues of the body.
• From the tissues, deoxygenated blood flows back to the heart through the vena cava.
• This circulation is called systemic circulation.
• In each complete circulation, the blood flows into the heart twice.
• This is called double circulation.
• Some other animals like fish have a single circulation.
• Blood flows only once through the heart for every complete circuit.

 

Structure and Function of the Heart

 

• The heart has four chambers:
• Two artria (auricles) and two ventricles.
• The left and right side of the heart are separated by a muscle wall (septum) so that oxygenated and deoxygenated blood does not mix.
• Deoxygenated blood from the rest of the body enters the heart through the vena cava .
• Blood enters the right atrium, then through tricuspid valve into right ventricle.
• Then via semi-lunar valve to the pulmonary artery to the lungs.
• Oxygenated blood from the lungs enters the heart through pulmonary vein.
• It enters the left atrium of the heart, then through bicuspid valve into left ventricle.
• Then via semi-lunar valves to aorta which takes oxygenated blood round the body.
• A branch of the aorta called coronary artery supplies blood to the heart muscle.
• The coronary vein carries blood from the heart muscle to the pulmonary artery which then takes it to the lungs for oxygenation.

 

Pumping Mechanism of the heart

• The heart undergoes contraction (systole) and relaxation ( diastole).

Systole

• When the ventricular muscles contract, the cuspid valves (tricuspid and bicuspid) close preventing backflow of blood into auricles.
• The volume of the ventricles decreases while pressure increases.
• This forces blood out of the heart to the lungs through semi-lunar valves and pulmonary artery, and to the body tissues via semi-lunar valve and aorta respectively.
• At the same time the atria are filled with blood.
• The left ventricle has thicker muscles than the right ventricle, and pumps blood for a longer distance to the tissues.

 

Diastole

• When ventricular muscles relax, the volume of each ventricle increases while pressure decreases.
• Contractions of atria force the bicuspid and tricuspid valves to open allowing deoxygenated blood from right atrium into right ventricle which oxygenated blood flows from left atrium into the left ventricle.
• Semi-lunar valves close preventing the backflow of blood into ventricles.
• The slight contractions of atria force the , blood flow into ventricles.

The Heartbeat

• The heart is capable of contracting and relaxing rhythmically without fatigue due to its special muscles called cardiac muscles.
• The rhythmic contraction of the heart arise from within the heart muscles without nervous stimulation.
• The contraction is said to be myogenic.
• The heartbeat is initiated by the pacemaker or sino-artrio-node (SAN) which is located in the right atrium.
• The wave of excitation spreads over the walls of atria.
• It is picked by the artrio-ventricular node which is located at the junction:
• Of the atria and ventricles, from where the purkinje tissue spreads the wave to the walls of the ventricles.
• The heart contracts and relaxes rhythmically at an average rate of 72 times per minute.
• The rate of the heartbeat is increased by the sympathetic nerve, while it is slowed down by the vagus nerve.
• Heartbeat is also affected by hormones e.g. adrenaline raises the heartbeat.

 

Structure and Function of Arteries,Capillaries and Veins

Arteries

• Arteries carry blood away from the heart.
• They carry oxygenated blood except pulmonary artery which carries deoxygenated blood to the lungs.
• Arteries have a thick, muscular wall, which has elastic and collagen fibres that resist the pressure of the blood flowing in them.
• The high pressure is due to the pumping action of the heart.
• The pressure in the arteries originate from the pumping action of the heart.
• The pulse or number of times the heart beats per minute can be detected by applying pressure on an artery next to the bone.
• g. by placing the finger/thumb on the wrist.
• The innermost layer of the artery is called endothelium which is smooth.
• It offers least possible resistance to blood flow.
• Have a narrow lumen .
• The aorta forms branches which supply blood to all parts of the body.
• These arteries divide into arterioles which further divide to form capillaries.

 

Capillaries

 

• Capillaries are small vessels whose walls are made of endothelium which is one cell thick.
• This provides a short distance for exchange of substances.
• Capillaries penetrate tissues,
• The lumen is narrow therefore blood flowing in capillaries is under high pressure.

 

• Pressure forces water and dissolved substances out of the blood to form tissue fluid.

 

• Exchange of substances occurs between cells and tissue fluid.

 

• Part of the tissue fluid pass back into capillaries at the venule end.
• Excess fluid drains into small channels called lymph capillaries which empty their contents into lymphatic vessels.
• Capillaries join to form larger vessels called venules which in turn join to form veins which transport blood back to the heart.

Veins

 

• Veins carry deoxygenated blood from the tissues to the heart (except pulmonary vein which carries oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart).
• Veins have a wider lumen than arteries.
• Their walls are thinner than those of arteries.
• Blood pressure in the veins is low.
• Forward flow of blood in veins is assisted by contraction of skeletal muscles, hence the need for exercise.
• Veins have valves along their length to prevent backflow of blood.
• This ensures that blood flows towards the heart.
• The way the valves work can be demonstrated on the arm.
• By pressing on one vein with two fingers, leaving one and pushing blood toward the heart then releasing the latter finger, it can be observed that the part in between is left with the vein not being visible.
• This is because bleed does not flow back towards the first finger.

Diseases and Defects of Circulatory System

Thrombosis

• Formation of a clot in the blood vessels is called thrombosis.
• Coronary thrombosis is the most common.
• It is caused by blockage of coronary artery which supplies blood to the heart.
• Blockage may be due to artery becoming fibrous or accumulation of fatty material on the artery walls.
• Narrow coronary artery results in less blood reaching the heart muscles.
• A serious blockage can result in heart attack which can be fatal.
• Heavy intake of fat, alcohol, being overweight and emotional stress can cause coronary thrombosis.
• A blockage in the brain can lead to a stroke causing paralysis of part of the body, coma or even death.
• A healthy lifestyle, avoiding a lot of fat in meals and avoiding alcohol can control the

Arteriosclerosis

• This condition results from the inner walls having materials being deposited there or growth of fibrous connective tissue.
• This leads  to thickening of the wall of the artery and loss of elasticity.
• Normal blood flow is hindered.
• Arteriosclerosis can lead to thrombosis or hypertension.
• A person with hypertension which is also called high blood pressure has his/her blood being pumped more forcefully through the narrow vessels.
• This puts stress on the walls of the heart and arteries.
• Regular exercise, healthy diet and avoiding smoking can help maintain normal blood pressure.

Varicose Veins

• Superficial veins especially at the back of the legs become swollen and flabby due to some valves failing to function properly.
• This results to retention of tissue fluid.
• Regular physical exercise will prevent this condition.
• Repair of valves through surgery can also be done.
• Wearing surgical stockings may ease a mild occurence.

 

Structure and Function of Blood

Composition of Blood

• The mammalian blood is made up of a fluid medium called plasma with substances dissolved in it.
• Cellular components suspended in plasma include;
• erythrocytes (red blood cells),
• leucocytes (white blood cells)
• thrombocytes (platelets)
• blood proteins.

Plasma

• This is a pale yellow fluid consisting of 90% water.
• There are dissolved substances which include;
  • glucose, amino acids, lipids, salts,
  • hormones, urea, fibrinogen, albumen,
  • antibodies, some enzymes suspended cells.
    • Serum is blood from which fibrinogen and cells have been removed.

 

The functions of plasma include:

• Transport of red blood cells which carry oxygen.
• Transport dissolved food substances round the body.
• Transport metabolic wastes like nitrogenous wastes and carbon (IV) oxide in solution about 85% of the carbon (IV) oxide is carried in form of hydrogen carbonates.
• Transport hormones from sites of production to target organs.
• Regulation of pH of body fluids.
• Distributes heat rou nd the body hence regulate body temperature.

 

Erythrocytes (Red Blood Cells)

• In humans these cells are circular biconcave discs without nuclei.
• Absence of nucleus leaves room for more haemoglobin to be packed in the cell to enable it to carry more oxygen.
• Haemoglobin contained in red blood cells is responsible for the transport of oxygen.
• Haemoglobin + Oxygen =oxyhaemoglobin
• (Hb) + (4O₂) __ (HbO_g)
• Oxygen is carried in form of oxyhaemoglobin.
• Haemoglobin readily picks up oxygen in the lungs where concentration of oxygen is high.
• In the tissues, the oxyhaemoglobin breaks down (dissociates) easily into haemoglobin and oxygen.
• Oxygen diffuses out of the red blood cells into the tissues.
• Haemoglobin is then free to pick up more oxygen molecules.
• The biconcave shape increases their surface area over which gaseous exchange takes place.
• Due to their ability, they are able to change their shape to enable themselves squeeze inside the narrow capillaries.
• Co2+ H2O carbonic anhydrase
• There are about five million red blood cells per cu bic millimetre of blood.
• They are made in the bone marrow of the short bones like sternum, ribs and vertebrae.
• In the embryo they are made in the liver and spleen.
• Erythrocytes have a life span of about three to four months after which they are destroyed in the liver and spleen.
• Also in the red blood cells is carbonic anhydrase which assists in the transport of carbon (IV) oxide.

Leucocytes (White Blood Cells)

• These white blood cells have a nucleus.
• They are divided into two:
• Granulocytes (also phagocytes or polymorphs)
• Agranulocytes .
• White blood cells defend the body against disease.
• Neutrophils form 70% of the granulocytes.
• Others are eosinophils and basophils.
• About 24% agronulocytes are called lymphocytes, while 4% agranulocytes are monocytes.
• The leucocytes are capable of amoebic movement.
• They squeeze between the cells of the capillary wall to enter the intercellular spaces.
• They engulf and digest disease causing organisms (pathogens) by phagocytosis.
• Some white blood cells may die in the process of phagocytosis.
• The dead phagocytes, dead organisms and damaged tissues form pus.
• Lymphocytes produce antibodies which inactivate antigens.

 

     Antibodies include:

• Antitoxins which neutralise toxins.
• Agglutinins cause bacteria to clump together and they die.
• Lysins digest cell membranes of microorganisms.
• Opsonins adhere to outer walls of microorganisms making it easier for phagocytes to ingest them.
• Lymphocytes’ are made in the thymus gland and lymph nodes.
• There are about 7,000 leucocytes per cubic millimetre of blood.

 

Platelets (Thrombocytes)

• Platelets are small irregularly shaped cells formed from large bone marrow cells called megakaryocytes.
• There are about 250,000 platelets per cubic millimetre of blood.
• They initiate the process of blood clotting.
• The process of clotting involves a series of complex reactions whereby fibrinogen is converted into a fibrin clot.
• When blood vessels are injured platelets are exposed to air and they release thromboplastin (thrombokinasewhich initiates the blood clotting process.
• Thromboplastin neutralises heparin the anti-clotting factor in blood and activates prothrombin to thrombin.
• The process requires calcium ions and vitamin K.
• Thrombin activates the conversion of fibrinogen to fibrin which forms a meshwork of fibres on the cut surface to trap red blood cells to form a clot.
• The clot forms a scab that stops bleeding and protects the damaged tissues from entry of micro-organisms.
• Blood clotting reduces loss of blood when blood vessels are injured.
• Excessive loss of blood leads to anaemia and dehydration.
• Mineral salts lost in blood leads to osmotic imbalance in the body.
• This can be corrected through blood transfusion and intravenous fluid.

 

 

ABO Blood Groups

• There are four types of blood groups in human beings: A, B, AB and O.
• These are based on types of proteins on the cell membrane of red blood cells.
• There are two types of proteins denoted by the letters A and B which are antigens.
• In the plasma are antibodies specific to these antigens denoted as a and
• A person of blood group A has A antigens on the red blood cells and b antibodies in plasma.
• A person of blood group B has B antigens on red blood cells and a antibodies in plasma.
• A person of blood group AB has A and B antigens on red blood cells and no antibodies in plasma .
• A person of blood group a has no antigens on red blood cells and a and b antibodies in plasma.

 

 V

Blood groups

Blood Groups	Antigens	Antibodies
A	A	b
B	B	a
AB	AandB	None
0	None	a and b

 

Blood Transfusion

Blood transfusion is the transfer of blood from a donor to the circulatory system of the recipient.

A recipient will receive blood from a donor if the recipient has no corresponding antibodies to the donor’s antigens.

If the donor’s blood and the recipient’s blood are not compatible, agglutination occurs whereby red blood cells clump together.

 

 

 

Blood typing

• A person of blood group 0 can donate blood to a person of any other blood group.
• A person of blood group 0 is called a universal donor.
• A person of blood group AB can receive blood from any other group.
• A person with blood group AB is called a universal recipient.
• A person of blood group A can only donate blood to another person with blood group A or a person with blood group AB.
• A person of blood group B can only donate blood to somebody with blood group B or a person with blood group AB.
• A person with blood group AB can only donate blood to a person with blood groupAB.
• Blood screening has become a very important step in controlling HIV/AIDS.
• It is therefore important to properly screen blood before any transfusion is done.

Rhesus Factor

• The Rhesus factor is present in individuals with the Rhesus antigen in their red blood cells.
• Such individuals are said to be Rhesus positive (Rh+), while those without the antigen are Rhesus negative (Rh-).
• If blood from an Rh+ individual is introduced into a person who is Rh- , the latter develops antibodies against the Rhesus factor.
• There may not be any reaction after this transfusion.
• However a subsequent transfusion with Rh+ blood causes a severe reaction, and agglutination occurs i.e. clumping of red blood cells.
• The clump can block the flow of blood, and cause death.
• Erythroblastosis foetalis (haemolytic disease of the newborn) results when an Rh- mother carries an Rh+ foetus.
• This arises when the father is Rh+.
• During the latter stage of pregnancy, fragments of Rhesus positive red blood cells of the foetus may enter mother’s circulation.
• These cause the mother to produce Rhesus antibodies which can pass across the. placenta to the foetus and destroy foetal red blood cells.
• During the first pregnancy, enough antibodies are not formed to affect the foetus.

 

• Subsequent pregnancies result in rapid production of Rhesus antibodies by the mother.
• These destroy the red blood cells of the foetus, the condition called haemolytic disease of the newborn.
• The baby is born anaemic and with yellow eyes (jaundiced).
• The condition can be corrected by a complete replacement of baby’s blood with safe healthy blood.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Lymphatic System

• The lymphatic system consists of lymph vessels.
• Lymph vessels have valves to ensure unidirectional movement of lymph.
• Lymph is excess tissue fluid i.e. blood minus blood cells and plasma proteins.
• Flow of lymph is assisted by breathing and muscular contractions.
• Swellings called lymph glands occur at certain points along the lymph vessels.
• Lymph glands are oval bodies consisting of connective tissues and lymph spaces.
• The lymph spaces contain lymphocytes which are phagocytic.
• Lymph has the same composition as blood except that it does not contain red blood cells and plasma proteins.
• Lymph is excess tissue fluid.
• Excess tissue fluid is drained into lymph vessels by hydrostatic pressure.
• The lymph vessels unite to form major lymphatic system.
• The main lymph vessels empty the contents into sub-clavian veins which take it to the heart.

 

Immune Responses

• Immune response is the production of antibodies in response to antigens.
• An antigen is any foreign material or organism that is introduced into the body and causes the production of antibodies.
• Antigens are protein in nature.
• An antibody is a protein whose structure is complementary to the antigen.
• This means that a specific antibody deals with a specific antigen to make it harmless.
• When harmful organisms or proteins invade the body, lymphocytes produce complementary antibodies, while bone marrow and thymus gland produce more phagocytes and lymphocytes respectively.

 

Types of Immunity

 

• There are two types of immunity; natural and artificial.

Natural Immunity is also called innate immunity.

• It is inherited from parent to offspring.

Artificial Immunity can be natural or induced.

• When attacked by diseases like chicken pox, measles and mumps, those who recover from these diseases develop resistance to any subsequent infections of the same diseases.
• This is natural acquired immunity.

Artificial Acquired Immunity:

• When attenuated (weakened) or dead microorganisms are introduced into a healthy person.
• The lymphocytes synthesis the antibodies which are released into the lymph and eventually reach the blood.
• The antibodies destroy the invading organisms.
• The body retains ‘memory’ of the structure of antigen.
• Rapid response is ensured in subsequent infections.
• Vaccines generally contain attenuated disease causing organisms.

Artificial Passive Acquired Immunity:

• Serum containing antibodies is obtained from another organism, and confers immunity for a short duration.
• Such immunity is said to be passive because the body is not activated to produce the antibodies.

Importance of Vaccination

• A vaccine is made of attenuated, dead or nonvirulent micro-organism that stimulate cells in the immune system to recognise and attack disease causing agent through production of antibodies.
• Vaccination protects individuals from infections of many diseases like smallpox, tuberculosis and poliomyelitis.
• Diseases like smallpox, tuberculosis and tetanus were killer diseases but this is no longer the case.
• Diphtheria Pertussis Tetanus (DPT) vaccine protects children against diphtheria, whooping cough and tetanus.
• Bacille Calmette Guerin (BCG) vaccine is injected at birth to children to protect them against tuberculosis.
• Measles used to be a killer disease but today, a vaccine injected into children at the age of rune months prevents it.
• At birth children are given an inoculation through the mouth of the poliomyelitis vaccine.

Allergic Reactions

• An allergy is a hypersensitive reaction to an antigen by the body.
• The antibody reacts with the antigen violently.
• People with allergies are oversensitive to foreign materials like dust, pollen grains, some foods, some drugs and some air pollutants.
• Allergic reactions lead to production of histamine by the body.
• Histamine causes swelling and pain.
• Allergic reactions can be controlled by avoiding the allergen and administration of anti-histamine drugs.

 

END OF NOTES

 

 

 

 

 

Respiration

 

 

 

Meaning and Significance of Respiration

• Respiration is the process by which energy is liberated from organic compounds such as glucose.
• It is one of the most important characteristics of living organisms.
• Energy is expended (used) whenever an organism exhibits characteristics of life, such as feeding, excretion and movement.
• Respiration occurs all the time and if it stops, cellular activities are disrupted due to lack of energy.
• This may result in death e.g., if cells in brain lack oxygen that is needed for respiration for a short time, death may occur.
• This is because living cells need energy in order to perform the numerous activities necessary to maintain life.
• The energy is used in the cells and much of it is also lost as heat.
• In humans it is used to maintain a constant body temperature.

Tissue Respiration

• Respiration takes place inside cells in all tissues.
• Every living cell requires energy to stay alive.
• Most organisms require oxygen of the air for respiration and this takes place in the mitochondria.

Mitochondrion Structure and Function

Structure

• Mitochondria are rod-shaped organelles found in the cytoplasm of cells.
• A mitochondrion has a smooth outer membrane and a folded inner membrane.
• The folding of the inner membrane is called cristae and the inner compartment is called the matrix.

Adaptations of Mitochondrion to its Function

• The matrix contains DNA ribosomes for making proteins and has enzymes for the breakdown of pyruvate to carbon (IV) oxide, hydrogen ions and electrons.
• Cristae increase surface area of mitochondrial inner membranes where attachment of enzymes needed for the transport of hydrogen ions and electrons are found.
• There are two types of respiration:
• Aerobic Respiration
• Respiration

 

 

 

Aerobic Respiration

• This involves breakdown of organic substances in tissue cells in the presence of oxygen .
• All multicellular organisms and most unicellular organisms e.g. some bactena respire aerobically.
• In the process, glucose is fully broken down to carbon (IV) oxide and hydrogen which forms water when it combines with the oxygen.
• Energy produced is used to make an energy rich compound known as adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
• It consists of adenine, an organic base, five carbon ribose-sugar and three phosphate groups.
• ATP is synthesised from adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate.
• The last bond connecting the phosphate group is a high-energy bond.
• Cellular activities depend directly on ATP as an energy source.
• When an ATP molecule is broken down, it yields energy.

Process of Respiration

• The breakdown of glucose takes place in many steps.
• Each step is catalysed by a specific enzyme.
• Energy is released in some of these steps and as a result molecules of ATP are synthesised.
• All the steps can be grouped into three main stages:

 

Glycolysis.

• The initial steps in the breakdown of glucose are referred to as glycolysis and they take place in the cytoplasm.
• Glycolysis consists of reactions in which glucose is gradually broken down into molecules of a carbon compound called pyruvic acid or pyruvate.
• Before glucose can be broken, it is first activated through addition of energy from ATP and phosphate groups.
• This is referred to as phosphorylation.
• The phosphorylated sugar is broken down into two molecules of a 3-carbon sugar (triose sugar) each of which is then converted into pyruvic acid.
• If oxygen is present, pyruvic acid is converted into a 2-carbon compound called acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl Co A).
• Glycolysis results in the net production of two molecules of ATP.
• The next series of reactions involve decarboxylation i.e. removal of carbon as carbon (IV) oxide and dehydrogenation, removal of hydrogen as hydrogen ions and electrons.
• These reactions occur in the mitochondria and constitute the Tri-carboxylic Acid Cycle (T.C.A.) or Kreb’s citric acid cycle.
• The acetyl Co A combines with 4-carbon compound with oxalo-acetic acid to form citric acid – a 6 carbon compound.
• The citric acid is incorporated into a cyclical series of reactions that result in removal of carbon (IV) oxide molecules, four pairs of hydrogen, ions and electrons.
• Hydrogen ions and electrons are taken to the inner mitochondria membrane where enzymes and electron carriers effect release of a lot of energy.
• Hydrogen finally combines with oxygen to form water, and 36 molecules of ATP are synthesised.

Anaerobic Respiration

• Anaerobic respiration involves breakdown of organic substances in the absence of oxygen.
• It takes place in some bacteria and some fungi.
• Organisms which obtain energy by anaerobic respiration are referred to as anaerobes.
• Obligate anaerobes are those organisms which do not require oxygen at all and may even die if oxygen is present.
• Facultative anaerobes are those organisms which survive either in the absence or in the presence of oxygen.
• Such organisms tend to thrive better when oxygen is present e.g. yeast.

 

Products of Anaerobic Respiration

• The products of anaerobic respiration differ according to whether the process is occurring in plants or animals.

Anaerobic Respiration in Plants

• Glucose is broken down to an alcohol, (ethanol) and carbon (IV) oxide.
• The breakdown is incomplete.
• Ethanol is an organic compound, which can be broken down further in the presence of oxygen to provide energy, carbon (IV) oxide and water.

C₆H_I20₆ _ 2C₂H₅0H + 2C0₂ + Energy

(Glucose) (Ethanol)    (Carbon (IV) oxide)

Fermentation-

• Is the term used to describe formation of ethanol and carbon (IV) oxide from grains.
• Yeast cells have enzymes that bring about anaerobic respiration.

Lactate Fermentation

• Is the term given to anaerobic respiration in certain bacteria that results in formation of lactic acid.

Anaerobic Respiration in Animals

• Anaerobic respiration in animals produces lactic acid and energy.

C₆H₁P6 _ 2CH₃CHOH.COOH + energy

(Glucose)   (Lactic acid) + energy

• When human muscles are involved in very vigorous activity, oxygen cannot be delivered as rapidly as it is required.
• The muscle respire anaerobically and lactic acid accumulates.
• A high level of lactic acid is toxic.
• During the period of exercise, the body builds up an oxygen debt.
• After vigorous activity, one has to breathe faster and deeper to take in more oxygen.
• Rapid breathing occurs in order to break down lactic acid into carbon (IV) oxide and water and release more energy.
• Oxygen debt therefore refers to the extra oxygen the body takes in after vigorous exercise.

 

Practical Activities

To Show the Gas Produced When the Food is burned

• A little food substance e.g., maize flour or meat is placed inside a boiling tube.
• The boiling tube is stoppered using a rubber bung connected to a delivery tube inserted into a test-tube with limewater.
• The food is heated strongly to bum.
• Observations are made on the changes in lime water (calcium hydroxide) as gas is produced.
• The clear lime water turns white due to formation of calcium carbonate precipitate proving that carbon (Iv) oxide is produced.

 

Experiment to Show the Gas Produced During Fermentation

 

• Glucose solution is boiled and cooled. Boiling expels all air.
• A mixture of glucose and yeast is placed in a boiling tube, and covered with a layer of oil to prevent entry of air.
• A delivery tube is connected and directed into a test-tube containing lime water.
• The observations are made immediately and after three days the contents are tested for the presence of ethanol.
• A control experiment is set in the same way except that yeast which has been boiled and cooled is used.
• Boiling kills yeast cells.
• The limewater becomes cloudy within 20 minutes.
• This proves that carbon (IV) oxide gas is produced.
• The fermentation process is confirmed after three days when alcohol smell is detected in the mixture.

Experiment to Show Germinating Seeds Produce Heat

• Soaked bean seeds are placed in a vacuum flask on wet cotton wool.
• A thermometer is inserted and held in place with cotton wool .
• The initial temperature is taken and recorded.
• A control experiment is set in the same way using boiled and cooled bean seeds which have been washed in formalin to kill microorganisms.
• Observation is made within three days.
• Observations show that temperature in the flask with germinating seeds has risen.
• The one in the control has not risen.

 

 

Comparison Between Aerobic and Anaerobic Respiration

 

	Aerobic Respiration	Anaerobic Respiration
		–
1. Site	In the mitochondria.	In the cytoplasm.
2. Products	Carbon dioxide and water.	Ethanol in plants and lactic acid in animals-
3. Energy yield	38 molecules of A TP (2880 KJ) from	2 molecules of ATP 210KJ from each
	each molecule of glucose.	molecule of glucose.
4. Further reaction	No further reactions on carbon	Ethanol and lactic acid can be broken down
	dioxide and water.	further in the presence of oxygen.

 

Comparison Between Energy Output in Aerobic and Anaerobic Respiration

• Aerobic respiration results in the formation of simple inorganic molecules, water and carbon (Iv) oxide as the byproducts.
• These cannot be broken down further. A lot of energy is produced.
• When a molecule of glucose is broken down in the presence of oxygen, 2880 KJ of energy are produced (38 molecules of ATP).
• In anaerobic respiration the by products are organic compounds.
• These can be broken down further in the presence of oxygen to give more energy.
• Far less energy is thus produced.
• The process is not economical as far as energy production is concerned.
• When a molecule of glucose is broken down in the absence of oxygen in plants, 210 KJ are produced (2 molecule ATP).
• In animals, anaerobic respiration yields 150 kJ of energy.

Substrates for Respiration

• Carbohydrate, mainly glucose is the main substrate inside cells.
• Lipids i.e. fatty acids and glycerol are also used.
• Fatty acids are used when the carbohydrates are exhausted.
• A molecule of lipid yields much more energy than a molecule of glucose.
• Proteins are not normally used for respiration.
• However during starvation they are hydrolysed to amino acids, dearnination follows and the products enter Kreb’s cycle as urea is formed.
• Use of body protein in respiration result to body wasting, as observed during prolonged sickness or starvation.
• The ratio of the amount of carbon (IV) oxide produced to the amount of oxygen used for each substrate is referred to as Respiratory Quotient (RQ) and is calculated as follows:

R.Q. = Amount of carbon (IV) oxide produced

Amount of oxygen used

• Carbohydrates have a respiratory quotient of 1.0 lipids 0.7 and proteins 0.8.
• Respiratory quotient value can thus give an indication of types of substrate used.
• Besides values higher than one indicate that some anaerobic respiration is taking place.

Application of Anaerobic Respiration in Industry and at Home

Industry

• Making of beer and wines.
• Ethanol in beer comes from fermentation of sugar(maltose) in germinating barley seeds.
• Sugar in fruits is broken down anaerobically to produce ethanol in wines.
• In the dairy industry, bacterial fermentation occurs in the production of several dairy products such as cheese, butter and yoghurt.
• In production of organic acids e.g., acetic acid, that are used in industry e.g., in preservation of foods.

Home

 

• Fermentation of grains is used to produce all kinds of beverages e.g., traditional beer and sour porridge.
• Fermentation of milk.

 

 

End of Topic

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

GASEOUS EXCHANGE IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS

 

 

 

Necessity for Gaseous Exchange in Living Organisms

 

• Living organisms require energy to perform cellular activities.
• The energy comes from breakdown of food in respiration.
• Carbon (IV) oxide is a by product of respiration and its accumulation in cells is harmful which has to be removed.
• Most organisms use oxygen for respiration which is obtained from the environment.
• Photosynthetic cells of green plants use carbon (Iv) oxide as a raw material for photosynthesis and produce oxygen as a byproduct.
• The movement of these gases between the cells of organisms and the environment comprises gaseous exchange.
• The process of moving oxygen into the body and carbon (Iv) oxide out of the body is called breathing or ventilation.
• Gaseous exchange involves the passage of oxygen and carbon (IV) oxide through a respiratory surface.
• Diffusion is the main process involved in gaseous exchange.

 

Gaseous Exchange in Plants

 

• Oxygen is required by plants for the production of energy for cellular activities.

 

• Carbon (IV) oxide is required as a raw material for the synthesis of complex organic substances.

 

• Oxygen and carbon (IV) oxide are obtained from the atmosphere in the case of terrestrial plants and from the surrounding water in the case of aquatic plants.

 

 

• Gaseous exchange takes place mainly through the stomata.

 

Structure of Guard Cells

 

• The stoma (stomata – plural) is surrounded by a pair of guard cells.
• The structure of the guard cells is such that changes in turgor inside the cell cause changes in their shape.
• They are joined at the ends and the cell walls facing the pore (inner walls) are thicker and less elastic than the cell walls farther from the pore (outer wall).
• Guard cells control the opening and closing of stomata.

 

 

 

Mechanism of Opening and Closing of  Stomata

 

• In general stomata open during daytime (in light) and close during the night (darkness).

 

• Stomata open when osmotic pressure in guard cells becomes higher than that in surrounding cells due to increase in solute concentration inside guard cells. Water is then drawn into guard cells by osmosis.
• Guard cells become turgid and extend.
• The thinner outer walls extend more than the thicker walls.
• This causes a bulge and stoma opens.
• Stomata close when the solute concentration inside guard cells become lower than that of surrounding epidermal cells.
• The water moves out by osmosis, and the guard cells shrink i.e. lose their turgidity and stoma closes.

 

Proposed causes of turgor changes in guard cells.

 

Accumulation of sugar.

• Guard cells have chloroplasts while other epidermal cells do not.
• Photosynthesis takes place during daytime and sugar produced raises the solute concentration of guard cells.
• Water is drawn into guard cells by osmosis from surrounding cells.
• Guard cells become turgid and stoma opens.
• At night no photosynthesis occurs hence no sugar is produced.
• The solute concentration of guard cells falls and water moves out of the guard cells by osmosis.
• Guard cells lose turgidity and the stoma closes.

 

pH changes in guard cells occur due to photosynthesis.

• In day time carbon (IV) oxide is used for photosynthesis. This reduces acidity while the oxygen produced increases alkalinity.
• Alkaline pH favours conversion of starch to sugar.
• Solute concentration increases inside guard cells, water is drawn into the cells by osmosis. Guard cells become turgid and the stoma opens.
• At night when no photosynthesis, Respiration produces carbon (IV) oxide which raises acidity .This favours conversion of sugar to starch. low sugar concentration lead to loss of turgidity in guard cells and stoma closes.

 

 

Explanation is based on accumulation of potassium  

      ions

• In day time (light) adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is produced which causes potassium ions to move into guard cells by active transport.
• These ions cause an increase in solute concentration in guard cells that has been shown to cause movement of water into guard cells by osmosis.
• Guard cells become turgid and the stoma opens.
• At night potassium and chloride ions move out of the guard cells by diffusion and level of organic acid also decreases.
• This causes a drop in solute concentration that leads to movement of water out of guard cells by osmosis.
• Guard cells lose turgor and the stoma closes.

 

 

Process of Gaseous Exchange in Root Stem and Leaves of Aquatic and Terrestrial Plants

 

Gaseous Exchange in leaves of Terrestrial Plants

 

• Gaseous exchange takes place by diffusion.
• The structure of the leaf is adapted for gaseous exchange by having intercellular spaces that are filled.
• These are many and large in the spongy mesophyll.
• When stomata are open,carbon(IV)oxide from the atmosphere diffuses into the substomatal air chambers.
• From here, it moves into the intercellular space in the spongy mesophyll layer.
• The CO2 goes into solution when it comes into contact with the cell surface and diffuses into the cytoplasm.
• A concentration gradient is maintained between the cytoplasm of the cells and  the intercellular spaces.
• CO2 therefore continues to diffuse into the cells.
• The oxygen produced during photosynthesis moves out of the cells and into the intercellular spaces.
• From here it moves to the substomatal air chambers and eventually diffuses out of the leaf through the stomata.
• At night oxygen enters the cells while CO2 moves out.

 

Gaseous exchange in the leaves of aquatic(floating)plants

• Aquatic plants such as water lily have stomata only on the upper leaf surface.
• The intercellular spaces in the leaf mesophyll are large.
• Gaseous exchange occurs by diffusion just as in terrestrial plants.

 

Observation of internal structure of leaves of aquatic plants

• Transverse section of leaves of an aquatic plant such as Nymphaea differs from that of terrestrial plant.

The following are some of the features that can be observed in the leave of an aquatic plant;

• Absence of cuticle
• Palisade mesophyll cells are very close to each other ie.compact.
• Air spaces (aerenchyma) in spongy mesophyll are very large.

 

• Sclereids (stone cells) are scattered in leaf surface and project into air spaces.
• They strengthen the leaf making it firm and assist it to float.

Gaseous Exchange Through Stems

 

Terrestrial Plants

 

• Stems of woody plants have narrow openings or slits at intervals called
• They are surrounded by loosely arranged cells where the bark is broken.
• They have many large air intercellular spaces through which gaseous exchange occurs.
• Oxygen enters the cells by diffusion while carbon (IV) oxide leaves.
• Unlike the rest of the bark, lenticels are permeable to gases and water.

 

Aquatic Plant Stems

 

• The water lily, Salvia and Wolfia whose stems remain in water are permeable to air and water.
• Oxygen dissolved in the water diffuses through the stem into the cells and carbon (IV) oxide diffuses out into the water.

 

 

Gaseous Exchange in Roots

 

Terrestrial Plants

 

• Gaseous exchange occurs in the root hair of young terrestrial plants.
• Oxygen in the air spaces in the soil dissolves in the film of moisture surrounding soil particles and diffuses into the root hair along a concentration gradient.
• It diffuses from root hair cells into the cortex where it is used for respiration.
• Carbon (IV) oxide diffuses in the opposite direction.
• In older roots of woody plants, gaseous exchange takes place through lenticels.

Aquatic Plants

 

• Roots of aquatic plants e.g. water lily are permeable to water and gases.
• Oxygen from the water diffuses into roots along a concentration gradient.
• Carbon (IV) oxide diffuses out of the roots and into the water.
• The roots have many small lateral branches to increase the surface area for gaseous exchange.
• They have air spaces that help the plants to float.
• Mangroove plants grow in permanently waterlogged soils, muddy beaches and at estuaries.
• They have roots that project above the ground level.
• These are known as breathing roots or pneumatophores.
• These have pores through which gaseous exchange takes place e.g. in Avicenia the tips of the roots have pores.
• Others have respiratory roots with large air spaces.

 

Gaseous Exchange in Animals

• All animals take in oxygen for oxidation of organic compounds to provide energy for cellular activities.
• The carbon (IV) oxide produced as a by-product is harmful to cells and has to be constantly removed from the body.
• Most animals have structures that are adapted for taking in oxygen and for removal of carbon (IV) oxide from the body.
• These are called “respiratory organs”.
• The process of taking in oxygen into the body and carbon (IV) oxide out of the body is called breathing or ventilation.
• Gaseous exchange involves passage of oxygen and carbon (IV) oxide through a respiratory surface by diffusion.

 

Types and Characteristics of Respiratory surfaces

Different animals have different respiratory surfaces.

• The type depends mainly on the habitat of the animal, size, shape and whether body form is complex or simple.
• Cell Membrane: In unicellular organisms the cell membrane serves as a respiratory surface.
• Gills: Some aquatic animals have gills which may be external as in the tadpole or internal as in bony fish e.g. tilapia.
• They are adapted for gaseous exchange in water.
• Skin: Animals such as earthworm and tapeworm use the skin or body surface for gaseous exchange.
• The skin of the frog is adapted for gaseous exchange both in water and on land.
• The frog also uses epithelium lining of the mouth or buccal cavity for gaseous exchange.
• Lungs: Mammals, birds and reptiles have lungs which are adapted for gaseous exchange.

Characteristics of Respiratory Surfaces

 

• They are permeable to allow entry of gases.

 

• They have a large surface area in order to increase diffusion.

 

• They are usually thin in order to reduce the distance of diffusion.

 

• They are moist to allow gases to dissolve.

 

• They are well-supplied with blood to transport gases and maintain a concentration gradient.

Gaseous Exchange in Amoeba

 

• Gaseous exchange occurs across the cell membrane by diffusion.
• Oxygen diffuses in and carbon (IV) oxide diffuses out.

 

• Oxygen is used in the cell for respiration making its concentration lower than that in the surrounding water.
• Hence oxygen continually enters the cell along a concentration gradient.

 

• Carbon (IV) oxide concentration inside the cell is higher than that in the surrounding water thus it continually diffuses out of the cell along a concentration gradient.

 

 

 

 

Gaseous Exchange in Insects

 

• Gaseous exchange in insects e.g., grasshopper takes place across a system of tubes penetrating into the body known as the tracheal system.

 

• The main trachea communicate with atmosphere through tiny pores called spiracles.

 

• Spiracles are located at the sides of body segments;

 

• Two pairs on the thoracic segments and eight pairs on the sides of abdominal segments.
• Each spiracle lies in a cavity from which the trachea arises.

 

• Spiracles are guarded with valves that close and thus prevent excessive loss of water vapour.
• A filtering apparatus i.e. hairs also traps dust and parasites which would clog the trachea if they gained entry.

 

• The valves are operated by action of paired muscles.

 

Mechanism of Gaseous Exchange in Insects

 

• The main tracheae in the locust are located laterally along the length of the body on each side and they are interconnected across.
• Each main trachea divides to form smaller tracheae, each of which branches into tiny tubes called tracheoles.
• Each tracheole branches further to form a network that penetrates the tissues. Some tracheoles penetrate into cells in active tissue such as flight muscles.
• These are referred to as intracellular tracheoles.
• Tracheoles in between the cells are known as intercellular tracheoles.
• The main tracheae are strengthened with rings of cuticle.
• This helps them to remain open during expiration when air pressure is low.

 

Adaptation of Insect Tracheoles for Gaseous Exchange

 

• The fine tracheoles are very thin about one micron in diameter in order to permeate tissue.
• They are made up of a single epithelial layer and have no spiral thickening to allow diffusion of gases.
• Terminal ends of the fine tracheoles are filled with a fluid in which gases dissolve to allow diffusion of oxygen into the cells.
• Amount of fluid at the ends of fine tracheoles varies according to activity i.e. oxygen demand of the insect.
• During flight, some of the fluid is withdrawn from the tracheoles such that oxygen reaches muscle cells faster and the rate of respiration is increased.
• In some insects, tracheoles widen at certain places to form air sacs.
• These are inflated or deflated to facilitate gaseous exchange as need arises.
• Atmospheric air that dissolves in the fluid at the end of tracheoles has more oxygen than the surrounding cells of tracheole epithelium’.
• Oxygen diffuses into these cells along a concentration gradient. ‘

 

• Carbon (IV) oxide concentration inside the cells is higher than in the atmospheric .
• Air and diffuses out of the cells along a concentration gradient.
• It is then removed with expired air.

 

 

 

Ventilation in Insects

 

• Ventilation in insects is brought about by the contraction and relaxation of the abdominal muscles.
• In locusts, air is drawn into the body through the thoracic spiracles and expelled through the abdominal spiracles.

 

• Air enters and leaves the tracheae as abdominal muscles contract and relax.
• The muscles contract laterally so the abdomen becomes wider and when they relax it becomes narrow.

 

• Relaxation of muscles results in low pressure hence inspiration occurs while contraction of muscles results in higher air pressure and expiration occurs.

 

• In locusts, air enters through spiracles in the thorax during inspiration and leaves through the abdominal spiracles during expiration.
• This results in efficient ventilation.

 

• Maximum extraction of oxygen from the air occurs sometimes when all spiracles close and hence contraction of abdominal muscles results in air circulating within the tracheoles.

 

• The valves in the spiracles regulate the opening and closing of spiracles.

Observation of Spiracle in Locust

 

• Some fresh grass is placed in a gas jar.
• A locust is introduced into the jar.
• A wire mesh is placed on top or muslin cloth tied around the mouth of the beaker with rubber band.
• The insect is left to settle.
• Students can approach and observe in silence the spiracles and the abdominal movements during breathing.
• Alternatively the locust is held by the legs and observation of spiracles is made by the aid of hand lens.

 

Gaseous Exchange in Bony Fish (e.g, Tilapia)

 

• Gaseous exchange in fish takes place between the gills and the surrounding water.
• The gills are located in an opercular cavity covered by a flap of skin called the operculum.
• Each _gill consists of a number of thin leaf-like lamellae projecting from a skeletal base branchial arch (gill bar) situated in the wall of the pharynx.
• There are four gills within the opercular cavity on each side of the head.
• Each gill is made up of a bony gill arch which has a concave surface facing the mouth cavity (anterior) and a convex posterior surface.
• Gill rakers are bony projections on the concave side that trap food and other solid particles which are swallowed instead of going over and damaging the gill ftlaments.

 

• Two rows of gill filaments subtend from the convex surface.

 

Adaptation of Gills for Gaseous Exchange

• Gill filaments are thin walled.
• Gill filaments are very many (about seventy pairs on each gill), to increase surface area.
• Each gill filament has very many gill lamellae that further increase surface area.
• The gill filaments are served by a dense network of blood vessels that ensure efficient transport of gases.
• It also ensures that a favourable diffusion gradient is maintained.
• The direction of flow of blood in the gill lamellae is in the opposite direction to that of the water (counter current flow) to ensure maximum diffusion of gases.

 

Ventilation

 

• As the fish opens the mouth, the floor of the mouth is lowered.
• This increases the volume of the buccal cavity.
• Pressure inside the mouth is lowered causing water to be drawn into the buccal cavity.
• Meanwhile, the operculum is closed, preventing water from entering or leaving through the opening.
• As the mouth closes and the floor of the mouth is raised, the volume of buccal cavity decreases while pressure in the opercular cavity increases due to contraction of opercular muscles.
• The operculum is forced to open and water escapes.
• As water passes over the gills, oxygen is absorbed and carbon dioxide from the gills dissolves in the water.

 

 

• As the water flows over the gill filaments oxygen in the water is at a higher concentration than that in the blood flowing, in the gill.

 

• Oxygen diffuses through the thin walls of gill filaments/lamellae into the blood.

 

• Carbon (IV) oxide is at a higher concentration in the blood than in the water.
• It diffuses out of blood through walls of gill filaments into the water.

Counter Current Flow

 

• In the bony fish direction of flow of water over the gills is opposite that of blood flow through the gill filaments .

 

• This adaptation ensures that maximum amount of oxygen diffuses from the water into the blood in the gill filament.
• This ensures efficient uptake of oxygen from the water.
• Where the flow is along the same direction (parallel flow) less oxygen is extracted from the water.

 

Observation of Gills of a Bony Fish (Tilapia)

 

• Gills of a fresh fish are removed and placed in a petri-dish with enough water to cover them.
• A hand lens is used to view the gills.
• Gill bar, gill rakers and two rows of gill filaments are observed.

 

Gaseous Exchange in an Amphibian – Frog

 

• An adult frog lives on land but goes back into the water during the breeding season.
• A frog uses three different respiratory surfaces.
• These are the skin, buccal cavity and lungs.

Skin

 

• The skin is used both in water and on land.
• It is quite efficient and accounts for 60% of the oxygen taken in while on land.

 

 

Adaptations of a Frog’s Skin for Gaseous Exchange

 

• The skin is a thin epithelium to allow fast diffusion.
• The skin between the digits in the limbs (i.e. webbed feet) increase the surface area for gaseous exchange.
• It is richly supplied with blood vessels for transport of respiratory gases.
• The skin is kept moist by secretions from mucus glands.
• This allows for respiratory gases to dissolve.
• Oxygen dissolved in the film of moisture diffuses across the thin epithelium and into the blood which has a lower concentration of oxygen.
• Carbon (IV) oxide diffuses from the blood across the skin to the atmosphere along the concentration gradient.

 

Buccal (Mouth) Cavity

 

• Gaseous exchange takes place all the time across thin epithelium lining the mouth cavity.
• Adaptations of Buccal Cavity for Gaseous Exchange
• It has a thin epithelium lining the walls of the mouth cavity allowing fast diffusion of gases.
• It is kept moist by secretions from the epithelium for dissolving respiratory gases.
• It has a rich supply of blood vessels for efficient transport of respiratory gases.
• The concentration of oxygen in the air within the mouth cavity is higher than that of the blood inside the blood vessels.
• Oxygen, therefore dissolves in the moisture lining the mouth cavity and then diffuses into the blood through the thin epithelium.
• On the other hand, carbon (IV) oxide diffuses in the opposite direction along a concentration gradient.

Lungs

 

• There is a pair of small lungs used for gaseous exchange.

Adaptation of Lungs

 

• The lungs are thin walled for fast diffusion of gases.
• Have internal foldings to increase surface area for gaseous exchange.
• A rich supply of blood capillaries for efficient transport of gases.
• Moisture lining for gases to dissolve.

 

Ventilation

 

Inspiration

 

• During inspiration, the floor of the mouth is lowered and air is drawn in through the nostrils.
• When the nostrils are closed and the floor of the mouth is raised, air is forced into the lungs.
• Gaseous exchange occurs in the lungs, oxygen dissolves in the moisture lining of the lung and diffuses into the blood through the thin walls.
• Carbon (IV) oxide diffuses from blood into the lung lumen.

Expiration

 

• When the nostrils are closed and the floor of mouth is lowered by contraction of its muscles, volume of mouth cavity increases.

 

• Abdominal organs press against the lungs and force air out of the lungs into buccal cavity.

 

• Nostrils open and floor of the mouth is raised as its muscles relax.
• Air is forced out through the nostrils.  

 

Gaseous Exchange in a Mammal -Human

 

• The breathing system of a mammal consists of a pair of lungs which are thin-walled elastic sacs lying in the thoracic cavity.
• The thoracic cavity consists of vertebrae, sternum, ribs and intercostal muscles.
• The thoracic cavity is separated from the abdominal cavity by the diaphragm.
• The lungs lie within the thoracic cavity.
• They are enclosed and protected by the ribs which are attached to the sternum and the thoracic vertebrae.
• There are twelve pairs of ribs, the last two pairs are called ‘floating ribs’ because they are only attached to the vertebral column.
• The ribs are attached to and covered by internal and external intercostals muscles.
• The diaphragm at the floor of thoracic cavity consists of a muscLe sheet at the periphery and a central circular fibrous tissue.

 

• The muscles of the diaphragm are attached to the thorax wall.

 

• The lungs communicate with the outside atmosphere through the bronchi, trachea, mouth and nasal cavities.
• The trachea opens into the mouth cavity through the larynx.
• A flap of muscles, the epiglottis, covers the opening into the trachea during swallowing.
• This prevents entry of food into the trachea.
• Nasal cavities are connected to the atmosphere through the external nares(or nostrils)which are lined with hairs and mucus that trap dust particles and bacteria, preventing them from entering into the lungs.
• Nasal cavities are lined with cilia.
• The mucus traps dust particles,
• The cilia move the mucus up and out of the nasal cavities.
• The mucus moistens air as it enters the nostrils.
• Nasal cavities are winding and have many blood capillaries to increase surface area to ensure that the air is warmed as it passes along.
• Each lung is surrounded by a space called the pleural cavity.
• It allows for the changes in lung volume during breathing.
• An internal pleural membrane covers the outside of each lung while an external pleural membrane lines the thoracic wall.
• The pleural membranes secrete pleural fluid into the pleural cavity.
• This fluid prevents friction between the lungs and the thoracic wall during breathing.

 

 

 

• The trachea divides into two bronchi, each of which enters into each lung.
• Trachea and bronchi are lined with rings of cartilage that prevent them from collapsing when air pressure is low.
• Each bronchus divides into smaller tubes, the bronchioles.
• Each bronchiole subdivides repeatedly into smaller tubes ending with fine bronchioles.
• The fine bronchioles end in alveolar sacs, each of which gives rise to many alveoli.
• Epithelium lining the inside of the trachea, bronchi and bronchioles has cilia and secretes mucus.

 

Adaptations of Alveolus to Gaseous Exchange

 

• Each alveolus is surrounded by very many blood capillaries for efficient transport of respiratory gases.
• There are very many alveoli that greatly increases the surface area for gaseous exchange.
• The alveolus is thin walled for faster diffusion of respiratory gases.
• The epithelium is moist for gases to dissolve.

 

 

Gaseous Exchange Between the Alveoli and the Capillaries

 

• The walls of the alveoli and the capillaries are very thin and very close to each other.
• Blood from the tissues has a high concentration of carbon (IV) oxide and very little oxygen compared to alveolar air.
• The concentration gradient favours diffusion of carbon (IV) oxide into the alveolus and oxygen into the capillaries .
• No gaseous exchange takes place in the trachea and bronchi.
• These are referred to as dead space.

Ventilation

 

• Exchange of air between the lungs and the outside is made possible by changes in the volumes of the thoracic cavity.
• This volume is altered by the movement of the intercostal muscles and the diaphragm.

 

Inspiration

 

• The ribs are raised upwards and outwards by the contraction of the external intercostal muscles, accompanied by the relaxation of internal intercostal muscles.

 

• The diaphragm muscles contract and diaphragm moves downwards.

 

• The volume of thoracic cavity increases, thus reducing the pressure.
• Air rushes into the lungs from outside through the nostrils.

 

Expiration

 

• The internal intercostal muscles contract while external ones relax and the ribs move downwards and inwards.

 

• The diaphragm muscles relaxes and it is pushed upwards by the abdominal organs. It thus assumes a dome shape.

 

• The volume of the thoracic cavity decreases, thus increasing the pressure.
• Air is forced out of the lungs.
• As a result of gaseous exchange in the alveolus, expired air has different volumes of atmospheric gases as compared to inspired air.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 7.1: Comparison of Inspired and Expired

 Air (% by volume)

Component	Inspired %	Expired %
Oxygen	21	16
Carbon dioxide	0.03	4
Nitrogen	79	79
Moisture	Variable	Saturated

Lung Capacity

• The amount of air that human lungs can hold is known as lung capacity.
• The lungs of an adult human are capable of holding 5,000 cm³ of air when fully inflated.
• However, during normal breathing only about 500 cm³ of air is exchanged.
• This is known as the tidal volume.
• A small amount of air always remains in the lungs even after a forced expiration.
• This is known as the residual volume.
• The volume of air inspired or expired during forced breathing is called vital capacity.

Control of Rate Of Breathing

• The rate of breathing is controlled by the respiratory centre in the medulla of the brain.
• This centre sends impulses to the diaphragm through the phrenic nerve.
• Impulses are also sent to the intercostal muscles.
• The respiratory centre responds to the amount of carbon (IV) oxide in the blood.
• If the amount of carbon (IV) oxide rises, the respiratory centre sends impulses to the diaphragm and the intercostal muscles which respond by contracting in order to increase the ventilation rate.
• Carbon (IV) oxide is therefore removed at a faster rate.

Factors Affecting Rate of Breathing in Humans

• Factors that cause a decrease or increase in energy demand directly affect rate of breathing.
• Exercise, any muscular activity like digging.
• Sickness
• Emotions like anger, flight

Effects of Exercise on Rate of Breathing

• Students to work in pairs.
• One student stands still while the other counts (his/her) the number of breaths per minute.
• The student whose breath has been taken runs on the sport vigorously for 10 minutes.
• At the end of 10 minutes the number of breaths per minute is immediately counted and recorded.
• It is noticed that the rate of breathing is much higher after exercise than at rest.

 

 

Dissection of a Small Mammal (Rabbit) to Show Respiratory Organs

• The rabbit is placed in a bucket containing cotton wool which has been soaked in chloroform.
• The bucket is covered tightly with a lid.
• The dead rabbit is placed on the dissecting board ventral side upwards.

 

• Pin the rabbit to the dissecting board by the legs.
• Dissect the rabbit to expose the respiratory organs.
• Ensure that you note the following features.
• Ribs, intercostal muscles, diaphragm, lungs, bronchi, trachea, pleural membranes, thoracic cavity.

 

Diseases of the Respiratory System

 

Asthma

• Asthma is a chronic disease characterised by narrowing of air passages.

Causes:

Allergy

• Due to pollen, dust, fur, animal hair, spores among others.
• If these substances are inhaled, they trigger release of chemical substances and they may cause swelling of the bronchioles and bring about an asthma attack.

Heredity

• Asthma is usually associated with certain disorders which tend to occur in more than one member of a given family, thus suggesting’ a hereditary tendency.

Emotional or mental stress

• Strains the body immune system hence predisposes to asthma attack.

     Symptoms

• Asthma is characterized by wheezing and difficulty in breathing accompanied by feeling of tightness in the chest as a result of contraction of the smooth muscles lining the air passages.

 

     Treatment and Control

• There is no definite cure for asthma.
• The best way where applicable is to avoid whatever triggers an attack (allergen).
• Treatment is usually by administering drugs called bronchodilators.
• The drugs are inhaled, taken orally or injected intravenously depending on severity of attack to relief bronchial spasms.

Bronchitis

• This is an inflammation of bronchial tubes.

Causes

• This is due to an infection of bronchi and bronchioles by bacteria and viruses.
• Symptoms
• Difficulty in breathing.
• Cough that produces mucus.
  • Treatment
• Antibiotics are administered.

Pulmonary Tuberculosis

• Tuberculosis is a contagious disease that results in destruction of the lung tissue.

      Causes

• Tuberculosis is caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
• Human tuberculosis is spread through droplet infection i.e., in saliva and sputum.
• Tuberculosis can also spread from cattle to man through contaminated milk.
• From a mother suffering from the disease to a baby through breast feeding.
• The disease is currently on the rise due to the lowered immunity in persons with HIV and AIDS (Human Immuno Deficiency Syndrome).
• Tuberculosis is common in areas where there is dirt, overcrowding and malnourishment.

     Symptoms

• It is characterised by a dry cough, lack of breath and body wasting.

     Prevention

• Proper nutrition with a diet rich in proteins and vitamins to boost immunity.
• Isolation of sick persons reduces its spread.
• Utensils used by the sick should be sterilised by boiling.
• Avoidance of crowded places and living in well ventilated houses.
• Immunisation with B.C.G. vaccine gives protection against tuberculosis.
• This is done a few days after birth with subsequent boosters.

     Treatment

• Treatment is by use of antibiotics.

Pneumonia

• Pneumonia is infection resulting in inflammation of lungs.
• The alveoli get filled with fluid and bacterial cells decreasing surface are for gaseous exchange.
• Pneumonia is caused by bacteria and virus.
• More infections occur during cold weather.
• The old and the weak in health are most vulnerable.

     Symptoms

• Pain in the chest accompanied by a fever, high body temperatures (39-40°C) and general body weakness.

    

Prevention

• Maintain good health through proper feeding.
• Avoid extreme cold.

      Treatment

• If the condition is caused by pneumococcus bacteria, antibiotics are administered.
• If breathing is difficult, oxygen may be given using an oxygen mask.

Whooping Cough

• Whooping cough is an acute infection of respiratory tract.
• The disease is more common in children under the age of five but adults may also be affected.

     Causes

• It is caused by Bordetella pertusis bacteria and is usually spread by droplets produced when a sick person coughs.

      Symptoms:

• Severe coughing and frequent vomiting.
• Thick sticky mucus is produced.
• Severe broncho-pneumonia.
• Convulsions in some cases.

      Prevention

• Children may be immunised against whooping cough by means of a vaccine which is usually combined with those against diphtheria and tetanus.
• It is called “Triple Vaccine” or Diptheria, Pertusis and Tetanus (DPT).

      Treatment

• Antibiotics are administered.
• To reduce the coughing, the patient should be given drugs.

END OF CHAPTER NOTES

Practical Activities

Observation of permanent slides of terrestrial and aquatic leaves and stems

Leaves

• Observation of T.S. of bean and water lily are made under low and ‘medium power objectives. Stomata and air space are seen.
• Labelled drawings of each are made.
• The number and distribution of stomata on the lower and upper leaf surface is noted.
• Also the size of air spaces and their distribution.

Stem

• Prepared slides (TS) of stems of terrestrial and aquatic plants such as croton and reeds are obtained.
• Observations under low power and medium power of a microscope are made.
• Labelled drawings are made and the following are noted:
• Lenticels on terrestrial stems.
• Large air spaces (aerenchyma) in aquatic stems.

 

END OF CHAPTER NOTES

 

 

 

 

 

 

Excretion and Homeostasis

Introduction

• Excretion is the process by which living organisms separate and eliminate waste products of metabolism from body cells.
• If these substances were left to accumulate, they would be toxic to the cells.
• Egestion is the removal of undigested materials from the alimentary canals of animals.
• Secretion is the production and release of certain useful substances such as hormones, sebum and mucus produced by glandular cells.
• Homeostasis is a self-adjusting mechanism to maintain a steady state in the internal environment

Excretion in Plants

• Plants have little accumulation of toxic waste especially nitrogenous wastes.
• This is because they synthesise proteins according to their requirements.
• In carbohydrate metabolism plants use carbon (IV) oxide released from respiration in photosynthesis while oxygen released from photosynthesis is used in respiration.
• Gases are removed from the plant by diffusion through stomata and lenticels.
• Certain organic products are stored in plant organs such as leaves, flowers, fruits and bark and are removed when these organs are shed.
• The products include tannins, resins, latex and oxalic acid crystals.
• Some of these substances are used illegally.
• Khat, cocaine and cannabis are used without a doctor’s prescription and can be addictive.
• Use of these substances should be avoided.

 

Plant Excretory Products their source and uses

 

Plant Product	Source	Use
Caffeine	Tea and coffee	Mild CNS stimulant.
Quinine	Cinchona tree	Anti malaria-drug.
Tannins	Barks of Acacia, Wattle trees	Tanning hides and skins.
Colchicine	Corms of crocus	Prevents spindle formation in cell division.
Cocaine	Leaves of coca plant	Local anaesthesia.	–
Rubber	Latex of rubber plant	Used in shoe industry.
Gum	Exudate from acacia	Used in food processing and printing industry.
Cannabis	Flowers, fruits and leaves of	Used in manufacture of drugs.
	cannabis sativa
Nicotine	Leaves of tobacco plant	Manufacture of insecticides. Heart and CNS
		stimulant.
Papain	Pawpaw (fruits)	Meat tenderiser Treats indigestion.
	I
	I	Mild stimulant.
Khat	Khatha edulis (miraa)
Morphine	Opium Poppy plant	Narcotic. Induces sleep / hallucinations.
Strychnine	Seeds of strychnos	CNS stimulant.

Excretory products in animals

Substance				Origin
1.	Nitrogenous compounds:			Excess amino acids (proteins).
	(i)	Ammonia		Deamination of amino acids.
	(ii)	Urea		Deamination of amino acids; then addition of carbon dioxide.
	(iii) Uric acid			Ammonia (from deamination of amino acids).
2. Carbon dioxide				Homeostasis and respiration.
3. Biliverdin and bilirubin				Breakdown of haemoglobin.
4.	Water			Osmoregulation.
5.	Cholesterol			Excess intake of fats.	—
				.i->:		—
6.	Hormones			Excess production

 

 

Excretion and Homeostasis in Unicellular Organisms

• Protozoa such as amoeba depend on diffusion as a means of excretion.
• They have a large surface area to volume ratio for efficient diffusion.
• Nitrogenous waste and carbon (IV) oxide are highly concentrated in the organism hence they diffuse out.
• In amoeba excess water and chemicals accumulation in the contractile vacuole.
• When it reaches maximum size the contractile vacuole moves to the cell membrane, bursts open releasing its contents to the surroundings.

 

Excretion in Human Beings

• Excretion in humans is carried out by an elaborate system of specialised organs.
• Their bodies are complex, so simple diffusion cannot suffice.
• Excretory products include nitrogenous wastes which originate from deamination of excess amino acids.

 

• The main excretory organs in mammals such as human beings include lungs, kidneys, skin and liver.

 

 

 

Structure and function of the human skin

Nerve Endings:

• These are nerve cells which detect changes from the external environment thus making the body to be sensitive to touch, cold, heat and pressure.

Subcutaneous Fat:

• Is a layer beneath the dermis.
• It stores fat and acts as an insulator against heat loss.
• The skin helps in elimination of urea, lactic acid and sodium chloride which are released in sweat.

The Lungs

• Carbon (IV) oxide formed during tissue respiration is removed from the body by the lungs.
• Mammalian lungs have many alveoli which are the sites of gaseous exchange.
• Alveoli are richly supplied with blood and have a thin epithelium.
• Blood capillaries around the alveoli have a high concentration of carbon (Iv) oxide than the alveoli lumen.
• The concentration gradient created causes carbon (IV) oxide to diffuse into the alveoli lumen.
• The carbon (IV) oxide is eliminated through expiration.

 

Structure and Functions of the Kidneys

• The kidneys are organs whose functions are excretion, osmoregulation and regulation of pH.
• Kidneys are located at the back of the abdominal cavity.
• Each kidney receives oxygenated blood from renal artery,
• while deoxygenated blood leaves through the renal vein.
• Urine is carried by the ureter from the kidney to the bladder, which temporarily stores it.
• From the bladder, the urine is released to the outside via the urethra.
• The opening from the urethra is controlled by a ring-like sphincter muscle.
• A longitudinal section of the kidney shows three distinct regions: a darker outer cortex, a lighter inner medulla and the pelvis.
• The pelvis is a collecting space leading to the ureter which takes the urine to the bladder from where it is eliminated through the urethra.

 

 

The Nephron

• A nephron is a coiled tubule at one end of which is a cup-shaped structure called the Bowman’s capsule.
• The capsule encloses a bunch of capillaries called the glomerulus.
• The glomerulus receives blood from an afferent arteriole a branch of the renal artery.
• Blood is taken away from the glomerulus by efferent arteriole leading to the renal vein.
• The Bowman’s capsule leads to the proximal convoluted tubule that is coiled and extends into a U-shaped part called loop of Henle.
• From the loop of Henle is the distal convoluted tubule that is also coiled.
• This leads to the collecting duct which receives contents of many nephrons.
• Collecting ducts lead to the pelvis of the kidney.

 

Mechanism of Excretion

• Excretion takes place in three steps:
• Filtration, reabsorption and removal.

Filtration

• The kidneys receive blood from renal artery a branch of the aorta.
• This blood is rich in nitrogenous waste e.g. urea.
• It contains dissolved food substances, plasma proteins,hormones and oxygen.
• Blood flow in capillaries is under pressure due to the narrowness of the capillaries.
• The afferent arteriole entering the glomerulus is wider than the efferent arteriole leaving it.
• This creates pressure in the glomerulus.
• Due to this pressure, dissolved substances such as urea, uric acid, glucose, mineral salts and amino acids are forced out of the glomerulus into the Bowman’s capsule.
• Large sized molecules in the plasma such as proteins and red blood cells are not filtered out because they are too large.
• This process of filtration is called ultra-filtration or pressure filtration and the filtrate is called glomerular filtrate.

 

Selective Reabsorption

 

• As the filtrate flows through the renal tubules the useful substances are selectively reabsorbed back into the blood.
• In the proximal convoluted tube all the glucose, all amino acids and some mineral salts are actively reabsorbed by active transport.
• The cells lining this tubule have numerous mitochondria which provide the energy needed.
• Cells of the tubule have microvilli which increases the surface area for re-absorption.
• The tubule is coiled, which reduces the speed of flow of the filtrate e.g. giving more time for efficient re-absorption.
• The tubule is well supplied with blood capillaries for transportation of reabsorbed substances.
• The ascending loop has thick wall and is impermeable to water.
• Sodium is actively pumped out of it towards the descending loop.
• As glomerular filtrate moves down the descending loop, water is reabsorbed into the blood by osmosis in the distal convoluted tubule and in the collecting duct.
• Permeability of the collecting duct and proximal convoluted tubule is increased by anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) whose secretion is influenced by the osmotic pressure of the blood.
• The remaining fluid consisting of water, urea, uric acid and some mineral salts is called urine.
• The urine is discharged into the collecting d ct and carried to the pelvis.
• The loop of Henle is short in semi-aquatic mammals, and long in some mammals like the desert rat.

Removal

• The urine is conveyed from the pelvis to the ureter.
• The ureter carries the urine to the bladder where it is stored temporarily and discharged to the outside through the urethra at intervals.

Common Kidney Diseases

Uraemia

• This is a condition in which concentration of urea in the blood.
• It may be due to formation of cysts in tubules or reduction in blood supply to the glomeruli as a result of contraction of renal artery.

  Symptoms

• Symptoms include yellow colouration of skin, smell of urine in breath, nausea and vomiting.
• Treatment includes dialysis to remove excess urea and a diet low in proteins and salts especially sodium and potassium.

Kidney Stones

• Kidney stones are solid deposits of calcium and other saIts.
• They are usually formed in the pelvis of the kidney where they may obstruct the flow of urine.
• Causes: the stones are formed due to crystallisation of salts around pus, blood or dead tissue.
• Symptoms: include blood in urine, frequent urination, pain, chills and fever. Severe pain when urinating.

Treatment

• Use of laser beams to disintegrate the stones.
• Pain killing drugs like morphine.
• Stones can be removed by surgery.
• Taking hot baths and massage.

 

Nephritis

• Nephritis is the inflation of glomerulus of the kidney.
• Causes: Bacterial infection, sore throat or tonsillitis, blockage of glomeruli by antibody-antigen complex.
• Signs and Symptoms: include headaches, fever, vomiting, oedema.
• Control includes dietary restrictions especially salt and proteins.
• Prompt treatment of bacterial infections.

 

Role of Liver in Excretion

• The liver lies below the diaphragm and it receives blood from hepatic artery and hepatic portal vein.
• Blood flows out of the liver through hepatic vein.
• Excretion of Nitrogenous Wastes
• Excess amino acids cannot be stored in the body, they are deaminated in the liver.
• Hydrogen is added to amino group to form ammonia which combines with carbon (IV) oxide to form urea.
• The urea is carried in the blood stream to the kidneys.
• The remaining carboxyl group, after removal of amino group, is either oxidised to provide energy in respiration.
• or built up into carbohydrate reserve and stored as glycogen or converted into fat and stored.

 

Breakdown and Elimination of Haemoglobin

• Haemoglobin is released from dead or old red blood cells which are broken down in the liver and spleen.
• Haemoglobin is broken down in the liver and a green pigment biliverdin results which is converted to yellow bilirubin.
• This is taken to the gall bladder and eliminated as bile.

 

Elimination of Sex Hormones

• Once they have completed their functions, sex hormones are chemically altered by the liver and then taken to the kidney for excretion.

 

Common Liver Diseases

 

Cirrhosis

• Cirrhosis is a condition in which liver cells degenerate and are replaced by scar tissue .
• This causes the liver to shrink, harden, become fibrous and fail to carry out its functions.

Causes

• Chronic alcohol abuse, schistosomiasis infection, obstruction of gall-bladder.

Symptoms

• Headache, nausea, vomiting of blood and lack of appetite, weight loss, indigestion and jaundice.

Control and Treatment

• Avoid alcohol consumption and fatty diet.
• Use drugs to kill the schistosomes if that is the cause.

Jaundice

• This is a yellow colouration of the skin and eyes.

Cause:

• Presence of excess bile pigments.
• This happens due to blockage of bile duct or destruction of liver.

      Symptoms:

• Yellow pigmentation of skin and eyes, nausea, vomiting and lack of appetite. Itching of skin.

Treatment

• Removal of stones from the gall bladder by surgery.
• Give patient fat-free diet, reduced amount of proteins.
• Give antihistamines to reduce itching.

Homeostasis

• Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal environment.
• The internal environment consists of intercellular or tissue fluid.
• This fluid is the medium in the space surrounding cells.
• Tissue fluid is made by ultra-filtration in the capillaries.
• Dissolved substances in the blood are forced out of the capillaries and into intercellular spaces.
• Cells obtain their requirements from tissue fluid while waste products from cells diffuse out into the tissue fluid.
• Some of the fluid gets back into the blood capillaries while excess fluid is drained into the lymph vessels.
• Cells function efficiently if there is little or no fluctuation in the internal environment.
• The factors that need to be regulated include temperature, osmotic pressure and pH.
• The body works as a self-regulating system and can detect changes in its working conditions bringing about corrective responses.
• This requires a negative feedback mechanism e.g. when body temperature falls below normal, mechanisms are set in place that bring about increase in temperature.
• And when the increase is above normal, mechanisms that lower the temperature are set in place.
• This is called a negative feedback and it restores the conditions to normal.

Neuro-Endocrine System and Homeostasis

• Homeostatic mechanisms are brought about by an interaction between nervous and endocrine systems.
• Nerve endings detect changes in the internal and external environment and relay the information to the brain.
• The hypothalamus and pituitary are endocrine glands situated in the brain.
• The hypothalamus detect changes in the blood.
• The pituitary secretes a number of hormones involved in homeostasis e.g. anti-duretic hormone (ADH).
• The discussion below shows the nature of these interactions.

 

 

 

The Skin and Temperature Regulation

• The optimum human body temperature is 36.8°C.
• A constant body temperature favours efficient enzyme reaction.
• Temperatures above optimum denature enzymes, while temperature below the optimum range inactivate enzymes.
• The skin is involved in regulation of body temperature as follows:
• The skin has receptors that detect changes in the temperature of the external environment.

 

When the body temperature is above optimum the following takes place:

Sweat:

• Sweat glands secrete sweat onto the skin surface.
• As sweat evaporates it takes latent heat from the body, thus lowering the temperature.

Vasodilation of Arterioles:

• The arterioles near the surface become wider in diameter.
• More blood flows near the surface and more heat is lost to the surrounding by convection and radiation.

Relaxation of hair erector muscle:

• When hair erector muscles relax, the hair lies flat thus allowing heat to escape from the skin surface.

 

When body temperature is below optimum the following takes place:

     Vasoconstriction of Arterioles:

• The arterioles near the surface of the skin become narrower.
• Blood supply to the skin is reduced and less heat is lost to the surroundings.

Contraction of hair erector muscles.

• When hair erector muscles contract, the hair is raised.
• Air is trapped between the hairs forming an insulating layer.
• Animals in cold areas have a thick layer of subcutaneous fat, which helps to insulate the body.
• Besides the role of the skin in thermoregulation as discussed above, the rate of metabolism is lowered when temperature is above optimum and increased when temperature is below optimum.
• The latter increases the temperature to the optimum.
• When this fails, shivering occurs.
• Shivering is involuntary contraction of muscles which helps to generate heat thus raising the body temperature.

 

 

 

Homeostatic Control of Body Temperature in Humans

 

Body size and Heat Loss

• The amount of heat produced by metabolic reactions in an animal body is proportional to its mass.
• Large animals produce more heat but they lose less due to small surface area to volume ratio.
• Small animals produce less heat and lose a lot, due to large surface area to volume ratio.
• Small animals eat a lot of food in relation .to their size in order to raise their metabolic rate.

Behavioural and Physiological Responses to Temperature Changes

• Animals gain or lose heat to the environment by conduction, radiation and convection.
• Birds and mammals maintain a constant body temperature regardless of the changes in the environment.
• They do this mainly by internally installed physiological mechanisms hence they are endotherms, also known as
• At the same time behavioural activities like moving to shaded areas when it is too hot assist in regulating their body temperature.
• Other animals do not maintain a constant body temperature e.g. lizards.
• They are poikilotherms (ectotherms) as their temperature varies according to that of surroundings.
• They only regulate body temperature through behavioural means.
• Lizards bask on the rocks to gain heat and hide under rocks when it is too hot.
• Some animals have adaptive features e.g. animals in extreme cold climates have fur and a thick layer of subcutaneous fat like polar bear.
• Those in extremely hot areas have tissue that tolerate high temperatures e.g. camels.
• Some animals avoid cold conditions by hibernating g. the frog while others avoid dry hot conditions by aestivation e.g. kangaroo rat.
• This involves decreasing their metabolic activities.

Skin and Osmoregulation

• Osmoregulation is the control of salt and water balance in the body to maintain the appropriate osmotic pressure for proper cell functioning.
• Sweat glands produce sweat and thus eliminate water and salt from the body.

The Kidney and Osmoregulation

• The kidney is the main organ that regulates the salt and water balance in the body.
• The amount of salt or water reabsorbed into the bloodstream is dependent on the osmotic pressure of the blood.
• When the osmotic pressure of the blood rises above normal due to dehydration or excessive consumption of salt, the osmo-receptors in the hypothalamus are stimulated.
• These cells relay impulses to the pituitary gland which produces a hormone called anti-diuretic hormone – ADH (vasopressin) which is taken by the blood to the kidneys.
• The hormone (ADH) makes the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct more permeable to water hence more water is reabsorbed into the body by the kidney tubules lowering the osmotic pressure in the blood.
• When the osmotic pressure of the blood falls below normal due to intake of a large quantity of water, osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus are less stimulated.
• Less antidiuretic hormone is produced, and the kidney tubules reabsorb less water hence large quantities of water is lost producing dilute urine (diuressis).
• The osmotic pressure of the blood is raised to normal.
• If little or no ADH is produced, the body may become dehydrated unless large quantities of water are consumed regularly.
• Diabetes insipidus is a disease that results from the failure of the pituitary gland to produce ADH and the body gets dehydrated.
• A hormone called Aldosterone produced by the adrenal cortex regulates the level of sodium ions.
• When the level of sodium ions in the blood is low, adrenal cortex releases aldosterone into the blood.
• This stimulates the loop of Henle to reabsorb sodium ions into the blood.
• Chloride ions flow to neutralise the charge on sodium ions.
• Aldosterone also stimulates the colon to absorb more sodium ions into the blood.
• If the sodium ion concentration rises above optimum level, adrenal cortex

Notes missing

The liver

• Formation of Red Blood Cells.
• In the embryo, red blood cells are formed in the liver.
• Breakdown and elimination of old and dead blood cells.
• Dead red blood cells are broken down in the liver and the pigments eliminated in bile.
• Manufacture of Plasma Proteins.
• Plasma proteins like albumen, fibrinogen and globulin are manufactured in the liver.
• Storage of blood, vitamins A, K, BI2 and D and mineral salts such as iron’ and potassium ions.
• Toxic substances ingested e.g. drugs or produced from metabolic reactions in the body are converted to harmless substances in a process called detoxification.